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FARM M 




GRAWSHAW 

AND 

LEHMANN 




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Class _^i£ii^ 
Book_ 



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Copyright }^^. 



GQEffilGHT DEFOSm 



FARM MECHANICS 



bv 



FRED D. CRAWSHAW 

Formerly Professor of Manual Arts, 
University of Wisconsin 

and 

E. W. LEHMANN 

Professor of Farm Mechanics, 
University of Illinois 







?7^ 



THE MANUAL ARTS PRESS 
PEORIA, ILLINOIS 






Copyright 1922 

Fred D. Crawshaw 

E. W. Lphmann 



@r;ufi'^!i5is 



N0\lir22 

Prinied in the United States oj America 



PREFACE 

THIS book has been prepared to meet the increasing need 
for a textbook on the mechanical processes commonly 
taught in agricultural high schools and colleges, and in indus- 
trial schools. Many teachers of vocational agriculture who 
find it difficult to organize suitable projects for their students 
will find that the exercises in this text have been worked out 
to meet their needs. The book should also be widely useful 
as a reference and instruction book on the farm. 

The types of work covered, while primarily representing 
the common branches of mechanical activity required under 
rural conditions, are, in most cases, applicable to the require- 
ments of the industry upon which each type has a bearing. 

Each part of the book deals exclusively and comprehen- 
sively with one particular type of work, as woodwork, cement 
work, forging, etc.; a fact which should contribute to its use- 
fulness, both as a text and as a reference book. Thru further 
divisions into chapters and numbered topics, a greater possi- 
bility of locating, at any time, the various details and descrip- 
tions is offered. 

The treatment thruout the book is thoroly practical. Em- 
phasis is placed upon the proper use of tools and materials in 
their application to projects. The projects are selected from 
the standpoint of the practical application to the needs of the 
student. The gradation of projects within each of the parts 
has been kept in mind . The plan has been to treat each topic 
in such detail that the teacher who has a variety of mechan- 
ical work going on in his classes at one time may be largely re- 
lieved of the burden of class instruction, and can devote his 
energies to the needs of the individual pupil. Working draw- 
ings and specifications for many of the projects have been 

3 



4 PREFACE 

given. Each of these projects is analyzed into its sequential 
operations with numerous references to the previous projects 
for specific details. Many supplementary projects are pro- 
vided. 

The authors are indebted to their many friends who have 
given freely of their material and advice. They wish partic- 
ularly to acknowledge the use of material furnished by the 
University of Illinois, the University of Missouri, the Iowa 
State College, the Portland Cement Association, and of cuts 
furnished by several trade journals and taken from state 
bulletins. 

Fred D. Crawshaw. 

E. W. Lehmann. 



CONTENTS 

PART I 

Woodworking 

Chapter I. Trees and Lumber 15 

1. Logging. 2. Milling. 3. Tree growth. 4. Seasoning. 5. Meas- 
urements and calculations. 6. Trees. 

Chapter IL Woodworking Tools .... 28 

7. Classification. 

Chapter III. Saws and Sawing 33 

8. Saws used. 9. Rip-saws. 10. Crosscut-saws. 11. Rip-sawing. 
12. Squaring and measuring for length. 13. Gaging for width. 14. 
Marking fan strips. 15. Boring holes. 16. Sawing ends. 17. 
Ripping off one-half-inch strip. 18. Ripping tapered edges. 19. 
Ripping for fan strips. 20. The buggy axle rest and the measur- 
ing crate. 21. The bevel square. 22. Nailing. 

Chapter IV. Planes and Planing .... 46 

23. The plane. 24. Care of plane-irons. 25. Grinding the plane- 
iron. 26. Whetting the plane-iron. 27. Care of plane. 28. Use 
of the plane. 29. Face side. 30. Joint edge. 31, Second edge, 
32. Second surface. 33. First end. 34. Second end. 35. Boring 
holes for rope. 36. Sawing end notches. 

Chapter V. Estimating Materials ; Constructing an 

Assembly Problem 57 

37. Calculations of stock. 38. Roof boards. 39. Fastening front 
strips. 40. Fastening back boards. 41. Trimming. 42. Check- 
ing estimate. 

Chapter VL Chiseling; Making Common Framing 

Joints 64 

43. Tools. 44. Preliminary instruction. 45. Purpose of seed tester. 
46. Rough cutting. 47. Laying out. 48. Sawing. 49. Chiseling 

5 



6 FARM MECHANICS 

joints. 50. Fastening corners. 51. Nailing bottom. 52. Marking 
edges. 53. Supplementary instructions. 54. Special operations. 

Chapter VI I. Use of Modeling or Forming Tools; 

Shaping Irregular Forms .... 73 

55. Modeling tools. 56. Squaring the stock; laying out. 57. Using 
the turning-saw. 58. Use of the spoke-shave. 59. Scraping and 
sandpapering. 60. The wood rasp. 61. The shoulder carrier. 

Chapter VIII. Supplementary Projects . . 79 

62. Sheep rack and feed bunk. 63. Directions for woodworking 
bench. 64. "Working directions for dog house. 65. Directions for 
corn drier. 66. Making the self-feeder. 67. Making the egg tester. 
68. Constructing a cow stanchion. 69. Making tomato trellis. 
70. Feed bunk for cattle. 71. Saw buck. 72. Chicken feeder. 
73. Garden marker. 74. Individual hog cot. 75. Feed bunk for 
sheep. 76. Plow doubletree, 77. Wagon jack. 78. Heavy farm 
sled. 79. Fence post mold. 

Chapter IX. Wood-Finishing and Painting . . 97 

80. Purpose of wood-finishing. 81. Method of preservation. 82. 
Classification of wood finishes. 83. Oil stain. 84. Wax. 85. 
Water stains. 86. Oil stains; chemical stains. 87. Coal-tar 
creosote oil. 88. The brush method. 89. The open-tank process. 
90. Shellac. 91. Varnish. 92. Wood-filler. 93. Paint. 

Chapter X. Glazing and Screening .... 106 

94. Definition. S5. Precautions. 96. Cutting glass. 97. Setting a 
pane of glass in a new frame. 98. Applying the putty. 99. Screen- 
ing. 



PART II 

Cement and Concrete 
Chapter XI. History of Cement .... Ill 

100. Preliminary. 101. Pre-historic uses of concrete. 102. Re- 
discovery of cement. 103. Natural cement in America. 104. 
Portland cement. 



CONTENTS 7 

Chapter XII. Properties and Uses of Cement . 115 

105. Properties. 106. Mortar. 107. Definition of concrete. 108. 
Aggregates. 109. Presence of rotten or soft pebbles in the gravel. 
110. Presence of dirt in the aggregate. 111. Vegetable matter in 
sand. 

Chapter XIII. Proportions and Mixtures; Hand- 
ling of Concrete 120 

112. Proportions. 113. 'Requirements of good concrete. 114. 
Standard mixtures. 115. Common errors in proportioning con- 
crete. 116. Determining quantities for a job. 117. Require- 
ments of good mixing. 118. Hand-mixing. 119. Procedure in 
hand-mixing. 120. Machine-mixing. 121. Consistency of mix- 
tures. 122. Placing of concrete. 123. Three methods of placing 
concrete. 124. Handling concrete. 

Chapter XIV. Forms for Concrete; Curing Con- 
crete 131 

125. Necessity of forms. 126. Importance of form construction. 
127. Earth forms. 128. Cast, wrought or galvanized iron forms. 
129. Wood forms. 130. Requirements of a good form. 131. Use 
of old lumber for forms. 132. Sharp corners in forms. 133. Re- 
moving forms; care of forms. 

Chapter XV. Reinforcing Concrete; Cement Work- 
ing Tools 135 

134. The principle of reinforcing. 135. Compression and tension 
in beams. 136. Kinds of reinforcing. 137. Use of scrap iron for 
reinforcing concrete. 138. Tools for concrete work. 

Chapter XVI. Projects in Concrete Construction 140 

139. Study of concrete construction and concrete materials. 140. 
Molded concrete. 141. Sidewalk and floors. 142. Constructing 
a door step. 143. Hot-bed, foundation wall, etc. 144. Construct- 
ing fence post. 145. Constructing a circular "stock tank. 

Chapter XVII. Supplementary Concrete Projects 166 

146. Constructing a garden or lawn roller. 147. A hog trough. 
148. Engine or machine foundation. 149. Cistern or shallow well 
top. 150. Manure pit and cistern. 151. Feeding floor. 152. 



8 FARM MECHANICS 

Constructing a scale pit. 153. Vault for privy. 154. Milk-cool- 
ing tank. 155. A rectangular water tank. 156. Potato and fruit 
storage cellar. 157. Hog wallow. 158. Dipping vat for hogs. 

PART III 

Blacksmithing 

Chapter XVIII. Manufacture of Iron and Steel 185 

159. Preliminary. 160. Iron ore. 161. Pig iron. 162. Wrought 
iron. 163. The open-hearth process. 164. The Bessemer proc- 
ess. 165. Steel. 166. Tempering steel. 

Chapter XIX. Equipment for Blacksmithing; Fun- 
damental Processes 192 

167. Use of the forge on the farm. 168. The forge and anvil. 
169. Blacksmith's tools. 170. Supplies for forge work. 171. Use 
of wrought iron. 172. The fire. 173. Welding. 

Chapter XX. Projects in Blacksmithing . . 199 

Problem 1 : Drawing and Bending of Iron. 

174. Tools to be used. 175. Maintaining the fire. 176. Bending 
iron. 177. Drawing iron. 

Problem 2: Upsetting and Punching. 

178. Tools needed for upsetting and punching. 179. Upsetting 
and punching. 180. Working instruction for punched screw clevis. 
181. Open-end wrench. 182. Bolt head. 183. Log hook. 

Problem 3 : The Process of Welding. 

184. Preparations for welding. 185. Preparing the scarfs. 186. 
Making the weld. 187. T-weld. 188. Wagon wrench. 189. 
Welded clevis. 

Problem J,.: Welding and Tempering Steel. 

190. Forging steel. 191. Working instructions for cold chisel. 192. 
The butcher knife. 193. A cultivator shovel. 

Chapter XXI. Supplementary Projects in Black- 
smithing 223 

194. Wagon-box stake irons. 195. Making a ring. 196. Con- 
structing a chain. 197. Making ice tongs. 198. A right-angle 



CONTENTS 9 

weld. 199. Forge tongs. 200. Repointing cultivator shovel. 
201. Sharpening plowshare, 202. Pointing plowshare. 203. 
Shortening buggy tire without cutting. 

PART IV 
Sheet-Metalwork 

Chapter XXII. Tools and Supplies; Fundamental 

Processes . . 234 

204. Need for sheet-metalwork on the farm. 205. The process of 
soldering. 206. Classes of solder. 207. Soldering fluxes. 208. The 
soldering-iron. 

Chapter XXIII. Projects in Sheet-Metalwork . 239 

Problem 1 : Making a Lap Joint as Used on Tin Roof. 

209. Stock and tools for lap joint. 210. Working instructions for 
lap joint. 

Problem 2 : To Patch a Tin Receptacle. 

211. Preparation for patching. 212. Completing the patch. 

Problem 3 : To Construct a Shallow Watering Pan for a Chicken Coop. 

213. Strengthening the edge. 214. Laying out and cutting tin to 

shape. 215. Folding. 
Problem J^: To Construct a Receptacle Requiring the Assembly of Heavy 
Pieces of Tin or Galvanized Iron. 

216. Constructing watering trough. 

Problems: Making a Cylindrical Receptacle with Handle and Rein- 
forced Edge. 

217. Methods of inserting wire. 218. Shaping bottom. 219. In- 
serting wire in the edge. 220. Handle for drinking cup. 

Problem 6: To Make a Conical Dish. 

221. Laying out conical shapes. 222. Construction of funnel. 

Chapter XXIV. Supplementary Projects in Sheet- 
Metalwork 255 

223. Cylindrical receptacle. 224. Cubical box with lid. 225. Stove- 
pipe collar. 226. Conductor elbows. 227. Roof ridge flange. 228. 
A measure. 229. Three-piece elbow, 230, Roof cap and ventilator. 
231. Gutter miter. 



10 FARM MECHANICS 

PART V 
Farm Machinery Repair and Adjustment 

Chapter XXV. Farm Machinery as an Economic 

Factor 262 

232. Farm machinery and national progress. 233. Latest ma- 
chinery most economical. 234. Influence of farm machinery 
on income. 235. The problem of farm power. 236. Wasting 
power and machinery on the farm. 237. Three considerations — 
housing, repairing and painting. 

Chapter XXVI. Tools and Materials Needed for 

Machinery Repair 272 

238. Necessity for good tools. 239. Wrenches. 240. Vise. 
241. Hammers. 242. Chisels. 243. Files. 244. Screw-drivers, 
245. Pliers. 246. Hack-saw. 247. Drills. 248. Stock taps and 
dies. 249. Materials needed. 

Chapter XXVII. How to Study Farm Machinery 276 

250. Three methods of approach. 251. Tillage machinery. 252. 
Study of seeding machinery. 253. Study of fertilizer drills, ma- 
nure and straw spreaders. 254. Study of haying machinery. 255. 
Harvesting machinery. 256. Study of power-driven machines. 

257. Study of gas engines, tractors and trucks. 

Chapter XXVIII. Projects in Farm Machinery Op- 
eration 282 

258. Conditions for carrying out projects. 259. Preparation of 
land for planting. 260. Planting corn. 261. Drilling grain. 262. 
Harvesting corn for silage. 263. Harvesting grain. 264. Harvest- 
ing hay crops. 265. Operating household equipment. 266. Gas 
tractor operation. 

Chapter XXIX. Projects in Farm Machinery Re- 
pair 298 

267. Proper time for checking up needed repairs. 268. Repair 
and adjustment of tillage machinery. 269. Repairing a walking 
plow. 270. Walking plow- adjustment. 271. Sulky and gang 
plows. 272. Adjusting sulky or gang plow. 273. Repair of peg- 



CONTENTS 11 

toothed harrow. 274. Repairing a disc harrow. 275. Repair and 
adjustment of planting machinery. 276. Repairing a grain drill. 
277. Adjusting a grain drill. 278. Repairing corn planter. 279. 
Adjustment of corn planter. 280. Repair and adjustment of fer- 
tihzer distributors, 281. Repairing manure spreader. 282. Re- 
pairing and adjusting straw spreader. 283. Repairing a lime and 
fertilizer sower. 284. Repair and adjustment of harvesting ma- 
chinery. 285. Repairing a mower. 286. Repairing and adjust- 
ing a binder. 287. Belt-driven machinery. 288. Repairing a 
grain separator. 289. Babbitting machine bearing boxes. 290. 
Babbitting a solid bearing. 291. Babbitting a split-box bearing. 
292. Scraping a babbitted bearing. 293. Repair and adjustment 
of a motor. 294. Overhauling an engine. 

PART VI 
Belts and Belting 

Chapter XXX. Kinds of Belts and Belt Laces . 329 

295. Methods of connecting machines. 296. Four kinds of belts. 
297. Cement splice. 298. Cementing belt. 299. Laced joints. 3C0. 
The process of lacing. 

Chapter XXXI. Projects in Lacing Belts . . 333 

301. Single-cross lacing; one row of holes punched on each end. 

302. Single-cross lacing; two rows of holes punched on each end, 

303. Double-cross lacing; one or two rows of holes punched on 
each end. 304, The wire belt lacing. 305. The Annan lacing. 
306. The hinge belt lacing, 307. Belt-hook joint. 

PART VII 
Farm Home Lighting and Sanitary Equipment 

Chapter XXX II. Farm Lighting and Heating . 341 

308. Necessity for good light. 309. The cheapest light. 310. A 
more modern lighting plant. 311. Electric lighting plants. 312, 
Acetylene lighting plants. 313. Gasoline gas lights. 314. Blau gas 
lights. 315. Farmhouse heating. 316. The hot-air system, 317. 
Steam and hot-water systems. 



12 FARM MECHANICS 

Chapter XXXIII. Farm Water Supply and Sewage 

Disposal 347 

318. Importance of sanitation on the farm. 319. Simplest water 
system. 320. Gravity system. 321. Water air-pressure system. 
322. Hydraulic ram. 323. Selecting a system. 324. The septic 
tank. 325. The art of plumbing. 326. Materials used for plumb- 
ing. 327. Pipe vise. 328. Pipe cutters. 329. Die stocks and dies. 
330. Pipe wrenches. 331. Reamers. 332. Rule. 333. Pipe-fittings. 

Chapter XXXIV. Drainage and Pipe Fitting . 361 

334. Fitting pipe handle for lawn roller. 335. Measuring mate- 
rials for handle. 336. Threading pipe. 337. Cutting pipe. 338. 
Installing drain from kitchen sink to sewage disposal system. 339. 
Establishing grade line for drain. 340. Digging ditch to grade. 
341. Laying the tile. 342. Installing kitchen sink and pump. 343. 
Maximum depth for pumping water. 344. Location of kitchen 
sink. 345. Connecting pipe for pump. 346. Installing plumbing 
in country home. 347. Sewer tile. 348. Soil pipe, 349. Connecting 
fixtures and vents. 350. Connecting cast-iron and lead pipe. 

Chapter XXXV. Supplementary Plumbing Projects 373 

351. Piping water to stock tank. 352. Installing hot-water tank 
with kitchen range having hot-water back. 353. To make a stock 
water heater. 354. Installing hydraulic ram. 355. Installing drain 
tile at foundation of house. 356. Additional jobs on farm. 

PART VIII 

Rope and Harness Work on the Farm 

Chapter XXXVI. Construction and Uses of Rope 379 

357. The need for rope work. 358. Materials of which rope is 
made. 359. How rope is made. 360. Rope terms. 361. Care and 
treatment of rope. 362. Requirements of a good knot. 363. Theory 
of knots and splices. 

Chapter XXXVII. Whipping and Making End Knots; 

End Splices 383 

364. Tools and material needed for rope work. 365. Treatment of 
raveled rope. 366. Whipping. 367. Crown knot. 368. Wall knot. 



CONTENTS 13 

369. Wall and crown knot. 370. Manrope knot. 371. Matthew 
Walker knot. 372. End or crown splice. 373. Overhand knot. 
374. Blood knot. 375. Figure 8 knot. 376. Stevedore knot. 

Chapter XXXVIII. Tying Knots and Hitches . 388 

377. Practice in tying knots. 378. Binder knot. 379. Square knot. 
380. Granny knot. 381. Surgeon's knot. 382. Weaver's knot. 

383. Carrick's bend. 

Knots for Fastening Cattle, Tying Hay Ropes, Etc. 

384. Bowline knot. 385. Double-rope bowline knot. 386. Slip 
knot. 387. Manger knot. 388. Lariat knot. 389. Hangman's 
noose. 390. Farmer's loop. 

Temporary Hitches. 

391. Half hitch. 392. Timber hitch. 393. Rolling hitch. 394. 

Clove hitch. 395. Scaffold hitch. 396. Blackwall hitch. 397. 

Sheepshank. 
Splices. 

398. End or crown splice. 399. Loop splice. 400. Eye splice or 

side splice. 401. Short splice. 402. Long splice. 

Chapter XXXIX. Projects in Rope Work . 402 

403. Making a halter. 404. An adjustable halter. 405. Making 
a non-adjustable halter. 406. The trip rope. 407. Throwing or 
casting rope. 408. Rope for casting cattle. 

Chapter XL. Harness Repair .... 409 

409. The importance of good harness. 410. The harness room. 
411. Harness oil. 412. Repair leather. 413. Equipment for har- 
ness work. 414. Splicing worn harness strap. 415. Preparing strap 
for sewing. 416. Sewing the splice. 417. Sewing buckle and ring 
on harness strap. 418. Instructions for sewing buckle. 419. Over- 
hauling a set of harness. 420. Adjusting harness to horse. 421. 
The bridle. 422. The collar. 423. Hames. 424. Other adjust- 
ments. 



PART I 

Woodworking 

chapter i 

Trees and Lumber 

1. Logging. The student is familiar with wood in two 
forms. One is logs and the other is lumber. It is not only 
desirable as information that you know the common trees, 
but it is necessary for practical purposes that you know dif- 
ferent kinds of wood when you see them in boards. 

Timber is first ''spotted" by men who go thru the forest to 
mark with an ax those trees which are to be cut. It is then 
felled (chopped or sawed down) and trimmed by having all 
limbs cut off. The body, or trunk, of the tree and the limbs 
which are large enough to be sawed into boards are cut to 
board lengths of twelve, fourteen, or sixteen feet, etc., forming 
logs. These logs are rolled, hauled or skidded into a clearing 
to be piled up, measured and later transported to a saw-mill. 

While in large piles in the clearing, which is an open space 
in the woods where the logs are said to be ''banked," they are 
scaled. This is measuring and estimating the number of 
board feet in each log. Each end of the log is measured and 
marked with the owner's number. 

The banking ground is frequently near a river and on a 
level above that of the water in the river, so that the logs can 
easily be rolled down into the stream, where they are allowed 
to drift to some point down stream, to be collected in a bog, 

15 



16 WOODWORKING 

or set-back, near a mill, and then to be sorted and later run 
into the mill and sawed into lumber. In case it is not pos- 
sible to transport logs in the natural way, as just described, 
they must be hauled by team or train to the mill. 

This description is very brief and is designed merely to give 
the outstanding facts in the process of felling trees and con- 
veying them cut up to the mill. The reader is referred to 
Noyes' Handwork in Wood, published by The Manual 
Arts Press, Peoria, Illinois, for an adequate description of 
this process and for a bibliography on logging. 

2. Milling. The logs are conveyed from the mill pond 
or yard into the mill by means of an endless chain and the 
''jack ladder" which is an inclined platform running from the 
mill into the water of the mill yard. The endless chain which 
runs over this inclined platform is fitted with studs which en- 
gage with the logs as they are directed toward the jack ladder 
by men with long spiked poles. The logs are carried end to 
end into the mill and there are inspected for stones which may 
be lodged in the bark. A flipper, controlled by steam, throws 
each log to the side when the operator of the machine throws 
a lever. The log now rolls down an inclined plane to a stop 
made of heavy iron which is located at the edge of the saw 
table. When the operator of the saw wants a log, he releases 
the stop. This operation permits one log to roll onto the saw 
table, where it is dogged, or clamped, to the table. 

The saw table moves backward and forward. With each 
passage of the table, a large circular, or band, saw cuts off a 
board. When two or three boards have been removed from 
the side, the log is turned completely over by what is called a 



TREES AND LUMBER 



17 



steam "nigger/' and a similar operation is performed on the 
opposite side. 

By easily-controlled machinery, the log is revolved or 
moved into different positions to be sawed into boards. It is 
sent from the saw to the edger and the cross-cut, or butting, 
saw on ''live" rollers which revolve on a horizontal table and 
transmit the boards at a rate of 200 to 250 feet per minute 





Fig. 1. Methods of sawing Fig. 2. End of log, showing 
lumber. A, slash-sawing; B, annual rings and medullary 

quarter-sawing. rays. 

from one place to another. Finally, the boards, now known 

as lumber, are transferred to a shed, where they are sorted as 

to size, quality and cut, and then again transferred out of 

doors to be piled for air-seasoning until sold for construction 

purposes. 

Boards are usually slash-sawed, the term used for parallel 
sawing (A, Fig. 1). However, they are also rift-sawed or 
quarter-sawed, which means that the saw cut is radial, as 
shown in B, Fig. 1. The advantage of the radially-sawed 
board is that the edges rather than the sides of the fiber of the 
wood form the surface of the board and thereby make a more 
even grain and one which wears better. 

3. Tree Growth. When a tree is sawed down, the sawed 
end will show concentric rings (Fig. 2). Those near the cen- 



18 WOODWORKING 

ter are more compact than the ones near the outside. The 
center portion is called heart wood; the outer portion, sap 
wood, because it conducts the sap which gives vitality to the 
tree. 

Each ring, if observed closely, will be found to be made up 
of two layers — one denser than the other. These are called 
annual rings because one pair of rings is formed each year. 
The dense portion of the ring is the result of winter growth, 
and the porous part is that formed in the spring and summer 
when the growth is most rapid. 

Upon closer inspection, it will be observed that these rings 
are crossed by radial lines running from the center to the bark. 
These are called medullary rays. In a sense, they help to 
bind the rings together. When cut at a slant, as they may be 
in radial- or quarter-sawing, these rays, which are very solid, 
will appear as light spots in the grain of the wood shown on 
the surface of a board. The beauty of quarter-sawed wood 
when polished makes certain kinds of it very desirable for in- 
terior finish and furniture construction. One of the woods 
which has this particular feature emphasized is oak. Other 
grain irregularities, such as wanes and gnarls, make attractive 
wood surfaces. Curly birch and bird's-eye maple are con- 
spicuous examples. 

4. Seasoning. One of the most important parts of the 
preparation of wood for construction use is its seasoning or 
drying. A properly-seasoned board is lighter than one not 
seasoned. It is stronger and is not subject to change of vol- 
ume which causes checking and warping. Of the several 
methods of seasoning, the best is natural-air-drying, which 
takes from two to six years. In this process, boards are piled 



TREES AND LUMBER 19 

'up with broad surfaces horizontal and separated one from an- 
other by thin strips of wood known as sticks. The boards in 
a particular layer are placed so that edges will not touch; 
hence, air is permitted to circulate throughout the pile and 
come in contact with all surfaces. The piles are set up a foot 
or more from the ground, one end being a few inches higher 
than the opposite one. They are covered with boards to pro- 
tect the drying lumber fi'om rain and sun. 

In order to produce lumber quickly for construction use, it 
is artificially seasoned or kiln-dried. This reduces the mois- 
ure of the wood to perhaps five per cent, whereas, in the 
natural process, ten per cent is the approximate minimum. 
However, kiln-dried lumber will more quickly re-absorb mois- 
ture. As most lumber nowadays is seasoned by some artifi- 
cial means, it is advisable to pile it in shops as for air-season- 
ing. In case there is a tendency to warp, it is sometimes ad- 
visable to clamp a board to a flat surface, concave surface 
down, or clamp two boards together with the concave surfaces 
facing each other. 

Whenever a board is dressed, it is well to plane both broad 
surfaces, especially in the case of air-dried lumber, in order to 
open the pores, as it were, on both sides and thus make the ex- 
posure conditions uniform throughout. If the ordinary 
means of overcoming warping are not sufficient, it is some- 
times possible to straighten a board by heating the convex 
side and, possibly, at the same time moistening the concave 
side. The heating can be done by laying the board on top of 
a furnace. 



20 WOODWORKING 

5. Measurements and Calculations. Lumber is meas- 
ured by the so-called board foot, which is one foot square and 
one inch thick. 

There are two satisfactory methods of calculating the num- 
ber of board feet in a board or a number of boards: 

Rule 1. Multiply thickness in inches by width in inches 
by length in feet, and divide by 12. Example: '^" ^ ^" ^ ^^' 
= 16-1/3 board feet. 

Rule 2. Multiply the thickness in inches by width in feet by 

length in feet. Example: \ ^ Jj^ ^\ = iQ 1/3 board feet. 

1x12 X 1 ' 

The possibility of cancellation in the second method makes 
it shorter and, consequently, preferable. 

When purchasing lumber, give the dimensions in the order 
of thickness, width and length, as: 8 pieces 5'' x 9'' x 12'. 

In quantities, lumber should be ordered as follows: 

Example 1. 1000' Norway pine dressed two sides to 7/8'', 
9" and up. This makes the minimum width 9". 

Example 2. 1000' White Pine S4S 7/8" x 5" x 12'. This 
means all boards are to be surfaced on all four surfaces and 
the dimensions are to be uniform, viz.: 7/8" thick by 5" wide 
by 12' long. 

6. Trees. Trees are divided into two general classes 
known as the broadleaf, or hardwoods, and the needleleaf , or 
softwoods. In each of these classes, there are many varieties 
which are of great value in some one or more forms of con- 
f:truction work. Those listed below are only a few of particu- 
lar significance, either because of their general use, or because 
of their prevalence in agricultural or industrial communities : 



TREES AND LUMBER 



21 



Name 
Oak. 



BROADLEAF OR HARDWOODS 
Variety Location Qualities 



Uses 



White. 


North Central 


Durable, 


Cabinet 




and East U.S. 


easily 


work and 






worked. 


Interior 






Does not 


finishes. 






warp or 








check easi- 








ly. Polishes 








well. 




Red Oak. 


North Central 


Same. . 


Same. 


Burr. 


and East U.S. 


Same. 


Same. 


Black. 


East of long. 


Same. 


Same. 




96, westward 




Also out- 




to Mo. and 




door con- 




Tex. 




struction. 


Live. 


W^st of 


Durable, 


Imple- 




Rockies. 


tough. 


ments. 



Distinguishing 
Tree Features: 



Heartwood, light brown to red or dark brown. 

Sapwood, light brown to yellow. 

Height, 75 feet; diameter, 4-1/2 feet. Rough bark. 



Ash. 



White. 



Black. 



Green 



Oregon. 



Eastern U. S. 


Tough, 


Cheap in- 




elastic. 


terior finish 




straight- 


and cab- 




grained. 


inet work. 




brittle. 




North and 


Soft, heavy, 


Same and 


Northeast 


tough, not 


spHnts. 


U.S. 


strong. 




East of 


Hard 


Same 


Rockies. 


heavy, 
strong, 
brittle. 




Pacific Coast. 


Light, hard, 


Furniture, 




strong. 


cooperage, 

carriage 

frames. 



22 



WOODWORKING 



BROADLEAF OR HARDWOODS (Continued) 
Name Variety Location Qualities Uses 

Ash (Cont.) 

Distinguishing 
Tree Features: Heartwood, yellow to brown, or reddish-brown. 
Sapwood, light yellow. 
Height, 65 feet; diameter, 2-1/2 feet. 



Maple. 



Hard. 



Silver. 

Red. 

Oregon. 



Northeast 


Straight- 


Furniture, 


and East U. S. grained, 


interior fin- 




strong, 


ish, imple- 




tough, 


ments. 




shrinks. 




East U. S. 


Light, brit- 


Interior fin- 


Ohio Basin. 


tle, easily 


ish, wooden 




worked. 


ware. 


East U.S. 


Same. 


Cabinet 
work. 


Western 


Light, hard, 


Furniture, 


Coast. 


strong. 


tool han- 
dles. 



Distinguishing 
Tree Feaiures: Heartwood, light to dark yellow. 
Sapwood, white to dark yellow. 
Height, 75 feet; diameter, 2 feet. 



Walnut. 



Black. 



East and Cen- 
tral U. S. 



easily 
worked. 
White Northeastand Light, soft, 

(Butternut). Central U.S. not strong. 



Heavy, Furniture, 

hard, fixtures, in- 

strong, firm, terior 
finish. 



Interior 
finish, cab- 
inet work. 



Distinguishing 
Tree Features: Heartwood, dark brown to reddish brown. 
Sapwood, light brown to dark brown. 
Height, 80 feet; diameter, 1 foot and larger. 



TREES AND LUMBER 



23 



BROADLEAF OR HARDWOODS (Continued) 
Name Variety Location Qualities Uses 

Hickory. Shagbark. Eastern U.S. Very tough, Carriage 



Distinguishing 
Tree Features: 



elastic, 

resilient, 

heavy. 

Heartwood, light to dark brown. 

Sapwood, ivory to cream. 

Height, 85 feet; diameter, 2-1/2 feet. 



and imple- 
ment work, 
ax handles. 



Chestnut. 




East of Miss- 


Weak, brit- 


Cabinet 






issippi river 


tle, durable, 


w^ork and 






except in cen- 


easytow^ork. 


furniture. 






tral portion of 


checks and 








this section. 


warps in 
drying. 




Distinguishing 










Tree Features: 


Heartwood, 


brown. 







Sapwood, lighter brown. 

Height, 65 feet; diameter, 7-1/2 feet. 



Beech. Eastern and 


Hard, 


Ship and 


Central U.S. 


heavy, 


wagon 




strong. 


work, plane 
stocks. 


Ironwood Same. 


Same. 


Liners, tool 


(Blue Beach). 




handles. 


Distinguishing 






Tree Features: Heartwood, light reddish brown. 





Sapwood, nearly white. 
Height, 55 feet; diameter, 2-1/2 feet, 
ironwood less.) 



(Dimension of 



Birch. 



White. 



Red. 



Canada, At- 
lantic Coast 
to Delaware. 

Massachu- 
setts and 
Florida. 



Soft, light. Small 



weak. 



Light and 
strong. 



wooden- 
ware, cheap 
furniture. 
Furniture 
and wood- 
enware. 



24 



WOODWORKING 



BROADLEAF 


OR HARDWOODS (Continued) 


Name Variety 


Location 


Qualities 


Uses 


Birch (Cont.) 








Yellow. 


Eastern U. S. 


Same. 


Same. 


Sweet. 


Northeastern 


Heavy, 


Furniture, 




U.S. 


hard, 
strong. 


ships. 



Disiinguhhing 
Tree Features: 



Heartwood, light brown. 
Sapwood, white to yellow. 
Height, 50 feet; diameter, 2 feet. 



Yellow. 


Eastern 




Light, soft, 


Boxes, cab- 




Coast. 




difficult to 

season, 

durable. 


inet work, 
interior 
trim. 

Note: The 
pine of the 
hardwoods. 


Poplar. 


Scattered, 
Central U. 


S. 


Same. 


Same. 


Basswood. 


Eastern U. 


,S. 


Tough, 


Boxes, 




Coast. 




weak, very 
soft. 


cheap fur- 
niture, car- 
riage 
bodies. 



Distinguishing 
Tree Features: 



Heartwood, greenish yellow to brownish yellow. 
Sapwood, almost white. 
Height, 80 feet; diameter, 5 feet. 



Mahogany. 



Central 


Strong, 


Furniture, 


America, 


durable. 


interior 


West Indies. 


easily 
warped, 
beautiful 
polish. 


trim. 



TREES AND LUMBER 



25 



BROADLEAF OR HARDWOODS (Continued) 



Name 


Variety 


Location 


Qualities 


Uses 


Mahogany 










(Cont.) 












White. 


Mexico and 

Central 

America. 


Same. 
More yel- 
low. 


Same. 




Spanish. 


Mexico, Cuba, 
West Indies. 




Same. 
Veneers 



Cedar. 



DistinguUhing 
Tree Features: 



Name 
Pine. 



: Heartwood reddish brown, darkens easily. 
Sapwood, light brown to yellow. 
Height, 50 feet; diameter, 3 feet. 

NEEDLELEAF OR SOFTWOODS 
Variety Location Qualities Uses 



White. 


North Central 


Uniform 


General 




and Eastern 


grain, 


carpentry, 




U.S. 


strong. 


boxes and 






elastic. 


crates. 






light, easily 








worked, 








weakest of 








pines. 




Georgia 


South Atlan- 


Resinous, 


Heavy and 


("Hard," 


tic and Gult 


strong and 


outside 


"Yellow" or 


states. 


heavy. 


construc- 


"Longleaf"). 




Durable. 


tion floor- 
ing. 


Norway 


New England 


Light, hard, 


Poles, 


(Redj. 


and Lake 


resinous. 


masts. 




states. 




flooring. 
Note: The 
oak of the 
softwoods. 



Distinguishing 
Tree Features: 



Heartwood, yellowish to reddish brown. 
Sapwood, v/hite to whitish yellow. 
Height, 80 feet; diameter, 3 feet. 



26 



WOODWORKING 



Name 
Spruce. 



NEEDLELEAF OR SOFTWOODS {Continued) 
Variety Location Qualities Uses 

Eastern U. S. 



Black. 



White. 



Sitka. 



Soft, light. Structural 
not durable substitute 





when ex- 


for white 




posed. 


pine. 


Western 


Close, 


Lumber, 


states. 


straight- 


ordinary 




grain, soft. 


carpentry. 




light. 




Pacific Coast. 




Construc- 
tion, inte- 
rior finish. 



Diiitinguishing 
TreeFeature.'i: Heartwood, reddish brown. 
Sapwood, nearly white. 
Height, 75 to 100 feet; diameter, 2-1/2 feet. 



Fir. 



Great Silver. Washington, Soft, easily Interior 

Oregon, Texas split. finish, 

and Mexico. boxes. 

Red. Northwestern Light, hard. House 

U. S. strong. trimmings. 



Difitinguishing 
Tree Features: Heartwood, light red to brownish yellow. 
Sapwood, white to yellow. 
Height, 200 ieet; diameter, 5 feet. 



Cedar. 



Red. 



White. 



Atlantic 


Fine- 


Chests, 


Coast, South- 


grained, 


boxes, pen- 


eastern U.S. 


light, soft, 

weak, 

durable. 


cils. 


Northern 


Light, soft. 


Poles, 


states, moun- 


weak, 


fencing, 


tains of North 


durable. 


railroad 


Carolina and 




ties. 


Tennessee. 







TREES AND LUMBER 



27 



Name 



NEEDLELEAF OR SOFTWOODS (Continued) 
Variety Location Qualities Uses 



Cedar(Con<.) Incense. 



Southeastern 
U.S. 



Same 



Distinguishing 
Tree Features: Heartwood, reddish brown. 
Sapwood, nearly white. 
Height, 40 feet; diameter, 2-1/2 feet. 



Sapwood, yellow. 

Height, 85 feet; diameter, 3 feet. 

Giant, 250 feet; diameter, 25 feet. 



Furniture, 
interior 
finish, ship- 
building. 



Cypress. 


Southern 


Soft, very 


Cooperar:^^ 




Coast. 


durable. 


carpentry. 


Redwood. 


Western 


Soft, dur- 


Construc- 




Coast. 


able, light 


tion, 




Calitornia. 


weight. 


shingles. 


Distinguishing 








Tree Features: Heartwood, 


reddish brown. 







The trees above listed are ''exogenous," which means that 
they grow from the inside out. There are a few trees which 
are ''endogenous/' or inward-growing. These are the palm, 
yucca and bamboo, all of which grow in southern countries, 
principally in the tropical region. They have little value in 
this country except for novelty furniture and, when shredded 
into cane, for chair seats, etc. 



CHAPTER II 
Woodworking Tools 

7. Classification. Practically all woodworking tools 
are listed below under a classification based on use (Figs. 3, 4, 
5, 6 and 7). The particular use of each tool is explained in 




ST 






Fig. 3. a, jointer plane; 6, jack plane; c, block plane; d, smooth 
plane; e, hand drill;/, automatic drill. 

the instructions given for the several projects. It is believed 
that one will learn best how to use a tool by actually using it 
in making something of material value. 

28 



WOODWORKING TOOLS 



29 



Dividing Tools: 



Planes (jack, smooth, block, jointer, rab- 
bet, moulding, tongue and groove, router) , 

Chisels (firmer, paring, framing, mortise) , 

Saws (rip, crosscut, back, turning, compass, 
dovetail), 

Knife, 




Fig. 4, a, rip-saw; b, crosscut-saw; c, try-square; d, jig-saw; e, bevel 
square;/, hammer; g, auger bit; h, drill bit; i, brace and bit. 



Ax, 

Wedge, 

Draw-knife, 

Spoke-shave. 



30 

Boring Tools: 



WOODWORKING 

Bits (auger, center, P^orstner, expansive), 
Drills (single- and double-cut), 
Gimlet, 
Brad-awl, 




h'^^i^---. j£^ 




Fig. 5. a, gouge (inside ground); b, gouge (outside ground'; c, draw- 
knife; d, spoke-shave; e, spoke-shave;/, turning-saw: g, compass; h, 
wood rasp; i, hatchet. 

Reamer, 

Countersink. 
Chopping Tools: Ax, 

Hatchet, 

Adz. 
Scraping Tools: Scraper, 

Rasp, 

Files (single-cut, blunt, flat, bastard, double- 
cut, taper, half-round) . 



WOODWORKING TOOLS 



31 



Pounding Tools: Hammers (claw, upholsterer's, riveting, ve- 
neering), 
Mallet, 
Nailset. 




Fig. 6, a, carpenter's square; b, mallet; c, mortise gage; d, marking 
gage; e, nailset;/, tang chisel; g, socket chisel. 



Holding Tools: 



Bench, 

Vise, 

Saw-horse, 

Bench-hook, 

Handscrew, 

Carpenter's clamps, 

Pliers (end-cutting, side-cutting), 

Pinchers (nippers). 

Bit-brace. 



32 



Measuring and 
Marking Tools: 



WOODWORKING 



Carpenter's square, 

Rule (two-foot, steel or scale), 

Try-square, 

Bevel square. 

Marking gage. 

Compass. 




Fig. 7. Woodworking bench with the tool rack. 

Sharpening Tools: Grindstone, 

Grinder, 

Slip stone. 

Oilstone, 

Saw-filing machine. 
Cleaning Tools: Broom, 

Brush, 

Buffer. 



CHAPTER III 
Saws and Sawing 

Suggested Projects: 

a) Garden marker (Fig. 8). 
h) Flower trellis (Fig. 9). 

c) Window stick (Fig. 10). 

d) Buggy axle rest (Fig. 11). 

e) Peck crate (Figs. 12, 13, 14). 



-24 




H'ih 



FiG. 8. Gar- 
den mark- 
er. 




NiH 



k4 ^ 

Fig. 0. Flower trellis. 





-4 




H HJF 




T" 




rtt- 






+f - 


— 1 




•1* 


— 




_ s 

15- 

1 


"I* 


• i> 


1-2 


-A 



Fig. 10. Window stick. 



8. Saws Used. The tools emphasized in this group arj 
the crosscut-saw and rip-saw. Auxiliary tools are the hammer, 
brace and bit, bevel square, try-square and marking gage. 

While there are many saws which constitute a complete 
equipment, as indicated in the classification of woodworking 
tools (Sec. 7), there are three only which are used generally 
- — the crosscut-, rip- and back-saws. 

33 



34 



WOODWORKING 



9. Rip-saws. The formation of the teeth on a rip-saw is 
shown in Fig. 15. This saw cuts with the grain and, conse- 




FlG. 11. Buggy axle rest. 



Fig. 12. Peck crate. 



§ 




-IZg 



Fig. 13. End of peck crate. FiG. 14. Bottom of peck crate, 

quently, cuts off the ends of the wood fiber (Fig. 16). The 
teeth, filed squarely across the saw-blade, form a series of 
chisels. Alternate teeth are set to one side of the blade, one 
series being set one way and the alternate series the other way 
(Fig. 15). The saw-blade is thus made thicker on the tooth 
edge of the blade than elsewhere, permitting the saw to pass 
thru the wood without binding while it makes its cut, or 
"kerf". 



SAWS AND SAWING 35 

The back-saw is a combination of the rip and crosscut in 
tooth formation, and is used for cutting either with or across 
the grain, particularly where line sawing is required, as in the 
making of joints. 



HEEL- 




Fig. 15. Shape of rip- Fig. 16. Position of rip- 

saw teeth. saw in action. 



10. Crosscut-saws. The teeth of a crosscut-saw are 
filed on both the front and back edges at an angle with the 
surface of the saw-blade (Fig. 17). This saw cuts across the 
grain, and does its work as it makes its forward stroke. The 




Fig. 17. Shape of crosscut- 
saw teeth. 



saw is **set" by pushing all teeth outward from the sides 
which are filed. This results, as in the case of the rip-saw, in 
forming two series of teeth, those of one series being pushed 
toward one side of the blade, and those of the other in the 
opposite direction (Fig. 17). 
Working Instructions jor Flower Trellis. 

Stock: 1 piece, I'^x 5'' X 32". 

Soft, straight-grained wood. (Drawing, Fig. 9.) 



36 



WOODWORKING 



11. Rip-sawing. The chief tool exercise in this project 
is rip-sawing. It is more difficult to make a series of parallel 
rip-saw cuts than to make an individual one. In this project, 
the cuts must be made with great care, that one fan strip may 
not be weakened more than another. The guide lines must 
be followed accurately. 

There is a possible element of 
difficulty in sawing each edge of 
the trellis stock to a taper. The 
saw must run at an angle with 
the grain. The piece should be 
placed in the vise with the end 
that goes in the ground at the 
top, and the taper line to be fol- 
lowed by the saw must be in a 
vertical position (Fig. 18). The 
saw should run just outside the 
line in the waste stock. 





Fig. 18. Correct position when 
using rip-saw. 



12. Squaring and Measur- 
ing for Length. Select the 
best surface {!) and the best edge {2), as in Fig. 19. With the 
try-square blade on one face, called the face side, and its 
beam on one edge, called the joint edge, square a line across 
the face side near one end (Fig. 19). 

With the beam of the try-square on the face side and the 
blade on the joint edge, run the try-square with the left hand 
toward the end of the line squared across the face side until 
the blade touches the blade of the knife held in the right 
hand, the point of the knife-blade being on the end cf this 



SAWS AND SAWING 



37 



squared line. With the try-square in this position, square a 
hne across the joint edge (Fig. 20). 

Measure the board for length from the squared line on the 
face side and mark a point with the end of the knife-blade 





Fig. 19. Position of try-square 
when squaring face side. 



Fig. 20. Position of try-square 
when squaring edge. 



(Fig. 21) . Us.ng the try-square as just described and holding 
the end of the knife-blade in this point, bring the square up to 
the knife, square a line across the face side, and then, as on the 

Knife line; 




Knife line. 




Fig. 21. Marking for length. 



■ Knife line 
Fig. 22. Board marked for length. 

first end, across the joint edge. The board is now marked for 
length (Fig. 22). 

13. Gaging for Width. Gage two lines on the face side 
— one 3-1/2'' and the other 4'' from the joint edge. 

Set the marking gage so that the width of the board is indi- 
cated by the distance from the marker to the stop (Fig. 23). 
This distance should be measured with a ruler before using 
the gage (Fig. 24). Inspect the marker before setting the 



38 



WOODWORKING 



gage to see that it protrudes from the beam of the gage about 
1/32" and that it is filed to a knife edge parallel to the surface 
of the stop (Fig. 25). — ^ 



- Rule 




TyTJTTTJT 



UJ- 



^ Width of Board 

Fig. 23. Setting the 
marking gage. 



6a6E 



T 



i i ' i 'i /i' 



T|-^ 



i® 



O 



Fig. 24. Testing gage 
with rule. 



Hold the gage on the face side of the wood with the head 
against the joint edge (Fig. 26), and run the gage from the end 
of the wood nearest you to the far end, which, in the case of a 





C^ 




■ 1_ 






Jl - II 1 li 1 1 




1,1 hill 




& =a 


^— Head 




Fig. 25. Correct shape cf 
point of marking gage. 



Fig. 26. Position of gage 
when marking on wide 
boards. 



long piece, may be rested on the bench (Fig. 27). The rela- 
tive position of the gage and the wood is shown in Fig. 28. 

Do not roll the gage as it is pushed over the surface of the 
wood, as this will make the marker run too deeply into the 
wood. 

The board is now marked for width (3-1/2"), with another 
mark to guide the rip-saw in its first cut, and to provide a 1/2" 
strip along the edge of the board to be used in fastening the 
fan strips on the end of the trellis (Fig. 29). 

14. Marking Fan Strips. Lay of! six points on the fan 
end of the board, 1/2" apart. Do this by laying the 



SAWS AND SAWING 



39 



graduated edge of the ruler across the end of the board on the 
face side, with the end of the ruler against the joint edge 
and the graduated edge on 
the squared knife line, and 
making a point with a 
sharp pencil at each 1/2" 
graduation mark on the 
ruler (Fig. 30). 




^WOOD 

Fig. 28. The correct angle for 
position of gage. 




Fig. 27. Correct method of holding 
gage and stock. 



With a straight edge, connect each one of these points with 
the center point of the 3-1/2" strip on the other end of the 
board. The outside lines only need be drawn the full length. 



Go>ge lines 





Fig. 30. Measuring for 
fan strips. 



Fig. 29. The board after gage lines 
have been drawn. 

All others should be drawn a dis- 
tance equal to the depth of the saw 
cuts for the fan strips (Fig. 31) . The 
bottom of these cuts should be located 
by a squared pencil line across the face side of the board, as 
should the position of the center line of each of the bolt holes 
(Fig. 32). 

15. Boring Holes. Place the board edge up in the vise. 
With a 5/16" auger-bit in the bit-brace, stand squarely before 



40 



WOODWORKING 



the board, placed horizontally edgewise in bench vise, with 
spur of bit on center for one of the holes to be bored for bolts 
and with bit in a vertical position (Fig. 33). This position 
may be tested by the use of the try-square (Fig. 34). With 

left hand on knob and 
StrM^htedse^ ^^r^^^^' right hand grasping 

the handle, turn the 
handle clockwise until 
about one -half of the 




— Pencil hne 



Fig. 81. Laying out rip-saw cuts. 

hole is bored. Repeat this operation in boring the second 
hole. Reverse the board in the vise and bore the second 
half of each hole. Great care must be taken to make all 
borings straight to secure holes without shoulders near the 
center. 




Bolt Tvoles 



Fig. 32. The board marked for bolt holes. 

.16. Sawing Ends. The saw works at an angle to the 
surface of the board (Fig. 35). The strokes are taken the 
length of the saw without exerting more pressure than to 
guide the saw. The squared line on the face side should be 
touched by the saw as it goes across the surface (Fig. 35). 
The squared lineonthe joint edge should be touched by the 
saw as it finishes its cut thru the board. In a similar man- 
ner saw to the squared lines on the other end of the board. 

•When sawing, place the board on the top of wooden 
horse with its end projecting over the end of the horse and 
with face side up and joint edge toward operator (Fig. 36.) 
Hold the stock with left knee and left hand, allowing thumb 
of left hand to guide the saw when beginning the cut. The 



SAWS AND SAWING 



41 



first stroke should be upward. Very little pressure is used in 
downward strokes, and none in upward strokes. 

17. Ripping Off One-half-Inch Strip. Place the board 
with long dimension vertical in the vise. Have the gage lines 





Fig. 34. Testing for squareness 
when boring. 



Fig. 33. Correct method cf 
using auger bit. 





Fig. 35. Position of cross- 
cut-saw when cutting. 



Fig. 36. Correct position of oper- 
ator using a crosscut-saw. 



3-1/2" and 4'' from the joint edge beyond the end of the 
bench (Fig. 37). Stand squarely in front of the board with 



42 



WOODWORKING 




Fig. 37. Stock put in vise 
for rip-sawing. 



right hand grasping the handle of the rip-saw (Fig. 18), allow- 
ing the index finger to rest on the side of the handle. Grasp the 
upper left-hand corner of the board with the thumb and the 
first two fingers of the left hand, stand in a bracing position, 
and place the saw on the upper end of the board in a position 
-Vertical line to draw it toward you. Pull the 

saw slightly downward without pres- 
sure and guide it against the thumb 
of the left hand. Make the stroke 
approximately the length of the saw 
blade. In a similar manner push the 
saw from you, slightly upward. Con- 
tinue this backward and forward motion, gradually bringing 
the saw to a horizontal position, or nearly at right angles 
with the surface of the board. The saw should always be 
cutting so that the angle formed between the cutting edge 
and the board on the operator's side 
is less than 90 degrees. In this man- 
ner saw on the outside of the verti- 
cal gage lines on the left (Fig. 37) in 
sawing to the 3-1/2'' and 4''gage lines. 

18. Ripping Tapered Edges. 

Place the board vertically in the vise Fig. 38. Rip-sawing at an 

. . , , , , 1 , , , angle over the grain. 

With Ian end downward and marked 

surface toward the front. One of the lines indicating a ta- 
pered edge of the trellis must be vertical (Fig. 38). Saw to 
this line in waste stock, leaving a sufficient amount of 
stock to plane finished edge on the board. Reset the board 
in the vise so that the second line making a tapered edge is ver- 
tical. Saw to this line as to the first one. 




SAWS AND SAWING 



43 



NSkU 




19. Ripping for Fan Strip. Place the board vertically 
in the vise and carefully saw on each line, marking the divid- 
ing line between two fan strips so that one-half of the kerf is 
taken on each side of the line. The end of each of these cuts 
must be square with the surface of the board, and must be ex- 
actly on the pencil line which limits these cuts. 

All sawing on the board is now completed. Plane the two 
tapered edges and the back of the board. 

To secure a definite thickness, the board may be gaged for 
thickness on finished tapered edges be- 
fore the back of the board is planed. 

Insert a stove bolt in each of the holes 
bored, and fasten in position with a 
washer under both the head of the bolt 
and the nut. 

Plane the strip which was first sawed 
from the edge of the board. Saw off 
12-1/2" of it, being certain that each end is square. With 
try-square and sharp pencil, mark a center cross-line on 
one edge of the strip. This line locates the center position 
for the end of the middle fan strip. Similarly on this sup- 
porting strip locate the center position for each of the 
other fan strips. With this line at the center of the middle 
fan strip and with trellis in natural position in the vise, nail 
the strip to this middle fan strip at the center of its end with 
two 1" brads, each about 3/16" from the outer surface of the 
trellis (Fig. 39). 

Carefully bend each of the outside fan strips to its proper 
position, and fasten it with two brads as in the case of the 
middle fan strip. In like manner, fasten each of the other 



Fig. 39. Nailing the 
trellis. 



44 



WOODWORKING 



strips. This work must be done with great care to avoid 
splitting either the supporting or any one of the fan strips. A 
wise precaution against such an accident is to bore holes with 
a brad-awl for each of the nail holes. 
Supplementary Instructions. 

20. The Buggy Axle Rest and the Measuring Crate 
require the use of tools not described in instructions for the 
flower trellis. 



Ho.lf circle 





Fig. 40. Bevel square used Fig. 41. Bevel square used in 
with a protractor. geometric construction. 

21. The Bevel Square, which is used to lay off the angles 
of the ends of the braces in the buggy axle rest, is shown in 
Fig. 4. It has an adjustable blade. It may be set by placing 
it upon a protractor, as shown in Fig. 40, or for the more com- 





Knife line 



Fig. 42. Setting bevel square to 
an angle of 45°. 



Fig. 43. Laying out with 
bevel square. 



mon angles, it may be set on the edge of a board with a geo- 
metrical construction made near this edge with compass and 
straight-edge, as shown in Fig. 41. The angle of 45 degrees 
is easily secured by placing the edge of the bevel-square blade 
thru two equal graduations on the sides of a carpenter square, 




SAWS AND SAWING 45 

as shown in Fig. 42. A bevel angle should be laid off with a 
bevel-square, much as a right angle is with a try-square. 

Each end of the brace in the buggy axle rest should be com- 
pletely defined by making bevel-square lines on edges and 
try-square lines on broad surfaces (Fig. 43) . 

22. Nailing. The nailing* exercise is the principal one in 
the construction of the 
measuring crate, aside 
from the use of the try- 
square and crosscut-saw, 
as it is assumed that lath 
or strips dressed to dimen- 
sions will be used as stock. 

The hammer should be 

1 . ,1 • 1 j_ 1 1 Fig. 44. Proper use of hammer, 

grasped m the right hand 

near the end of the handle and swung freely from the elbow 
in a vertical plane with but slight wrist and shoulder 
movement. The thumb and finger of the left hand should 
hold the nail (Fig. 44). 

Where a good many operations are re- 
peated, it is often well to use a form, or jig, to 
FigTs. Jig for secure uniform results and to avoid waste of 
nailmg. time in unnecessary preliminaries in making 

each individual operation. 

Fig. 45 shows jig which might be used in locating and 
driving nails when fastening crate strips on corners. The 
holes are sufficiently large so that when the jig is placed over 
the end of a crate strip in position to nail, and the nail is 
driven thru the jig hole, the jig may be lifted off, the head of 
the nail being smaller than the hole in the jig. 




CHAPTER IV 
Planes and Planing 

Suggested Projects: 

a) Scouring board for kitchen (Fig. 46). 

b) Bread-cutting board (Fig. 47). 

c) Bulletin board to hang on wall (Fig. 48) . 

(1) Bill board for filing meat and grocery bills (Fig. 49). 
e) Swing board (Fig. 50). 
/) Rope wind (Fig. 51). 



I i 

212. 



^T 




h 



4 — 



The tool chiefly emphasized in this 
group of projects is the plane. Other 
tools needed are the try-square, ruler, 
marking gage, crosscut-saw, rip-saw 
and, for some of the projects, the hammer or bit and bit-brace. 



Fig. 46. Scouring board. 



23. The Plane. There are four principal planes used in 
a woodworker's kit. They are the jointer, jack, smooth and 
block. It is not necessary to have all of these in order to do 
satisfactory work. The jack plane (Fig. 52) shows the plane 
and its parts. 

46 



PLANES AND PLANING 



47 




Fig. 47. Bread-cutting 
board. 



yp 

— 1«^^ 

1 



L|^__i— j 



^. 



_L 



4 



i^ 



Fig. 48. Bulletin board. 



— 4- 




Fig. 49. Bill board. 



48 



WOODWORKING 



24. Care of the Plane. The plane-iron must be kept 
sharp. Grind it when it is very dull or nicked; otherwise, 
whet it on an oilstone. Fig. 53 gives the position of the 

plane-iron on a grind- 



stone as held by the 
operator. Fig. 54 
shows the position 
of the plane-iron on 
the oilstone as held 
by the operator. 





Fig. 50. Swing board 




r-oo 



Fig. 51.. Rope wind. 

25. Grinding the Plane-Iron. To grind the plane- 
iron, hold it steady and at such an angle that the proper bevel 
will be secured. Move it back and forth sideways to account 
for any unevenness in the stone, but do not raise or lower it. 



PLANES AND PLANING 



49 



26. Whetting the Plane-Iron. To whet the plane- 
iron, hold it so that the bevel formed by the grindstone will be 
in contact with the oilstone. Use a circular motion in whet- 




FiG. 52. Parts of jack plane: 



1 A Double plane-iron. 7 

1 Single plane-iron. 

2 Plane-iron cap. 8 

3 Cap screw. 9 

4 Lever cap, 10 

5 Lever cap screw. 11 

6 Frog, complete. 12 



"Y" adjusting lev- 
er. 
Adjusting nut. 
Lateral adj. lever. 
Frog screw. 
Plane handle. 
Plane knob. 



13 Handle bolt & 

nut. 

14 Knob bolt & nut. 

15 Plane handle 

screw. 

16 Plane bottom. 
46 Frog adj. screw. 




Plane Iron 



Fig. 53. Position of plane- 
iron on the grindstone. 



Plane Iron 




\ir 



Fig. 55. Difference in angles for 
grinding and for whetting. 



Plane Iron 




Fig. 54. Position of plane- 
iron on the oilstone. 



Bevel up 




Fig. 56. Whetting the face 
side of plane-iron. 



50 



WOODWORKING 



ting (Fig. 54). Finally, raise the hands, slightly continuing 
this motion. This will tend to create a whetted bevel made 
slightly at an angle with the ground bevel (Fig. 55). The 
plane-iron should be held in this position for a few moments 
only, when it may be reversed, laid flat on the top of the stone 
and given a few circular strokes (Fig. 56). 



Fig. 57. Shape of cutting 
edge for general use. 



Fig. 58. Shape of cutting 
edge for jack plane. 



The irons for all planes except the jack should be ground at 

right angles with the edge, with the corners rounded (Fig. 57). 

The plane-iron for the jack plane, if used principally as a 

roughing plane, should be ground rounding on the edge as in 

Fig. 58. When used 
as the only plane in a 
kit, it should be ground 
very slightly rounding, 
if at all. The angle for 
grinding, except when 
a plane is used exclu- 
sively for very hard 
wood, should be ap- 
FlG.59. Correct way of holding the plane, proximately 20 de- 
grees. The whetted bevel should make approximately 5 
degrees with the ground bevel (Fig. 55). 

27. Care of Plane. In order to protect the edge of the 
plane-iron, lay the plane on its side when not in use. Fig. 7 
shows the plane and other tools in position on a carpenter's 




PLANES AND PLANING 



51 



Bench 




Fig. 60. Planing a wide board. 



bench, which is a very satisfactory kind to use on the farm. 

28. Use of the Plane. To use a plane, the operator 
stands in front of the bench in a bracing position, the left 
foot in front of the right and the body turned slightly toward 
the bench. 

Note that the handle of the plane is grasped with the right 
hand, with the fingers and thumb wrapped about the handle. 
The palm of the left hand is placed on the knob of the plane 
(Fig. 59). 

The plane is placed upon the 
board so that its bottom is in con- 
tact with the surface to be planed. 
The left hand presses the plane 
downward, and the right hand 
pushes it forward . When the plane 
bottom is fully in contact with the wood, both hands exert 
an equal pressure. As the plane projects over the end of 
the board in completing its stroke, the right hand exerts the 
pressure and the left hand merely serves to hold and guide 
the plane. 

It is customary in planing a surface to begin the planing at 
the edge nearest the operator, and to finish at the opposite 
edge. However, if the board is warped or twisted, shavings 
must first be taken from the high surfaces to establish a flat 
and true surface. Then the finishing shavings should be 
taken as suggested. 

Working Instructions for Swing Board: 
Stock: Ipiece,l"x6"xl6". 

29. Face Side. Place the board flat upon the top of the 
bench with one end against the bench stop (Fig. 60) . With 



52 



WOODWORKING 



the plane set to take a light shaving, proceed to surface the 
stock, as explained in Sec. 28. The planed surface should be 
tested with the blade of a try-square or other straight-edge, 
placed in several positions. When testing, place the blade of 
the try-square across the surface at different points. The 
amount of light shown between the board and the try-square 
blade will indicate the low places in the surface. Continue 
planing either by taking regular shavings across the board or 
by planing high places only until the straight-edge test shows 
approximately the same amount of light for all positions of 
the try-square. Mark this surface 1. 

30. Joint Edge. Place the board in the vise with one 

edge up. Plane this edge until 
it tests straight lengthwise by 
the straight-edge test, and 
straight and at right angles 
with the face surface by using 
the try-square, as shown in 
Fig. 61 . The try-square should 
be placed on the edge at 
several points, always having 
the beam of the square against 
the face side. When edge 

tests are satisfactory, mark the planed edge 2. 

31. Second Edge. Set the marking gage and gage for 
width of the board, using the method described in Sec. 13. 

Plane the second edge of the board as you did the joint 
edge. Test frequently with the try-square, and keep the 
amount of wood to be planed off the same in thickness the en- 
tire length of the board. Remember, when the gage line 13 




Fig. 61. Testing edge with 
try-square. 



PLANES AND PLANING 



53 



reached, planing must stop and the edge must be straight and 
square with the face side. 

32. Second Surface. From the face side, gage the thick- 
ness of the board on both planed edges. Plane the second 
surface as you planed the first, testing frequently for straight- 
ness in width and length so that the surface will be true when 
the gage lines are reached. 

33. First End. Place the board vertically in the vise. 
First from one edge and then the other, never allowing the 
plane to take a shaving completely across the end, plane the 
upper end of the board square with the face side and the joint 
edge (Fig. 62). 

34. Second End. Measure the board for length, and 
square across the face side 
and joint edge with knife 
and try-square. (See Sec. 
12 for instructions on saw- 
ing and squaring.) Plane 
the second end according 
to the directions for plan- 
ing the first end. 

Note: The face side, 
joint edge and first end are 
surfaces from which all measurements must be taken in 
securing the dimensions of a board or in making surface 
measurements. 




Fig. 62. Planing the end. 





Fig. 63. Layout for ))oring. 



Fig. 64. Lines, for rip-sawing. 



54 



WOODWORKING 



35. Boring Holes for Rope. With marking gage, make 
a short, hght center line on face side of board from each end 
thru a point 3'' from each end (Fig. 63). By the use of the 
try-square and knife, cross each of these center lines with a 
short knife line at right angles to the joint edge (Fig. 64). 

With 3/'4'' auger-bit and brace, bore the two holes for the 
rope, as shown in Fig. 65. A piece of board must be placed 
on the back of the swing board, opposite the auger-bit, to pre- 
vent splintering the fibers of the wood in the swing board, or, 

the stock must be re- 
versed in the vise as 

Vertical 



JKH _ Jg^ 





Fig. 65. Boring on broad side of stock. 



Fig. Q6. Position of board 
for rip-sawing. 



soon as the spur protrudes on the back side of the swing 

board so that the hole may be finished from the opposite side. 

36. Sawing End Notches. On each end, measure 1" in 

each direction of the center 
lines, square across the ends 
at these points and on the face 
side join the end of each of 
these lines with the corre- 
sponding side of the hole, to 
form tangents (Fig. 66). 
I ^ Place the board in the vise 

so that one of these lines is in 
Fig. 67. Sandpapering. a vertical position (Fig. 66). 




PLANES AND PLANING 



55 



As previously instructed, saw to this line in waste stock 
with a rip-saw. 

Sandpaper used over a block and run lengthwise of the 
grain may be used to smooth surfaces of the swing board and 
round edges slightly (Fig. 67). 

Supplementary Instructions : 

The ''Working Instructions" for the swing board includes 
practically all those necessary lor any one of the suggested 
projects in this group. However, in the bulletin board and 
bill board, the following suggestions should be made: 

In cutting off the corners on -. ^ 

each of these projects, you 




Fig. 68. Layout for corner cuts. 

should work from the center line 
shown in Fig. 68. By measuring 
on each side of this line, one will 
be sure to make the end symmet- 
rical. The lines drawn to show 
where the corners are to be cut 
should be drawn on the face side 
and from each eiid of these a line 
should be squared across the joint 
edge or end of board (Fig. 68) . 

To saw each of these lines, put board in vise so that line 
is in vertical position. 

To insert bill-board stake at any particular point on the 
front of the board, drill or bore a hole slightly smaller than a 




Fig. 69. Use of hand drill. 



56 



WOODWORKING 



ten-penny finishing nail thru the board from the front side, as 
suggested (Fig. 69). If a hand drill is not available, use bit 
and brace (Fig. 4). 




Fig. 70. Clothes pin which may- 
be used with bulletin board. 



From the back side of the board, drive thru the hole a ten- 
penny finishing nail and set the head under the surface of 
the board by the use of a nailset or second nail. 

The bulletin board may be equipped either with a spring 
clip, as shown in Fig. 48, or with clothes pin (Fig. 70). 



CHAPTER V 



Estimating Materials; Constructing an Assembly 

Problem 

Suggested Projects: 

a) Wash bench (Fig. 71). 

b) Chicken coop (Fig. 72). 

c) Feed bin or wood-box 

(Fig. 73). 

d) Shipping crate (Fig. 74). 

e) Flower box (Fig. 75). 




Fig. 72. Chicken coop. 



57 



58 



WOODWORKING 



■^--<^ -----Ay--,- 

: A u 




^ 


1 L- 










^ 


" 1 



r-SlRAP HINGE. 




Zxz CORNER POSTS 
MATCHED LUMBER COVERINS 

Fig. 73. Feed bin or wood box. 




Screws 

1 1 — ,-" — 



r>^L- 



h 



-2-8- 



y 






■■J 



-2-0- 



FlG. 74, Shipping crate. 



CONSTRUCTING AN ASSEMBLY PROBLEM 



59 



This group of projects does not require the use of tools not 
already described. It represents, however, a type of project 
slightly different from any of those included in former groups. 
The projects in this group are larger and generally include 
more distinct parts requiring the use of 
more and larger stock. In a sense, they 
represent a type of work which is nei- 
ther carpentry on the one hand nor 
bench woodwork on the other; they 
combine the elements of both. 





Fig. 75. Flower box. 



37. Calculations of Stock. In Sec. 5, rules are given 
for finding the number of board feet in one or more boards. 
It is essential that we know how to apply this rule, both to 
estimate the cost of a project and actually to determine the 
amount of material that has gone into it. It is equally im- 
portant to form a judgment of what stock to select before a 



60 WOODWORKING 

project is chosen. For example, small pieces of wood may 
sometimes be used up for the smaller parts of a project, while 
boards from which pieces for the project may be cut can be 
selected carefully with a view to wasting as little material as 
possible. 

Think carefully of the means of getting out stock, both to 
save material and to save time. Be as systematic about your 
work as possible. When a tool is set for a particular dimen- 
sion or use, do all that you can with it, not only on one board, 
but on all which are to have similar work done upon them. 
Plan ahead so that you know exactly what you should do 
next, and how you will proceed from step to step. Think 
thru a problem before you begin construction. If you need 
to make changes, you can do so better, having once thought 
out one solution. Whenever possible, make a complete work- 
ing drawing of the project with dimensions and notes. 

Working Instructions for Chicken Coop: 

Instructions are given below for making the chicken coop. 
Use strips of wood, if they can be found, for the slats in the 
front, and select boards for the roof and back as nearly as pos- 
sible the desired width. For such a project as this, use old 
material if available rather than new. Old fence boards are 
satisfactory for the back. 

38. Roof Boards. Secure lumber free from knots which 
will cut economically to make the roof boards. Example: 
Two boards, each 9" wide, or one 12'^ and the other 6'' wide, 
the latter a fence board, possibly. Test the ends of boards 
for squareness. Use a carpenter's square for this, and in case 
an end needs to be sawed square, follov/ the usual method of 



CONSTRUCTING AN ASSEMBLY PROBLEM 



61 



squaring and sawing, substituting the carpenter's square for 
the try-square. If two boards are used, find the center in 
length of each one. Square across thru the center points and 
saw on hnes. Place one 12'' and one 6" board, or the two 9" 




%.:^*^r 




Fig. 76. First cross cleat in place. Fig. 77. Second cross cleat in place. 

boards edge to edge with ends flush. Nail a 2" or 3" strip 
1/2" from one end of the pair of boards (Fig. 76), and another 
3" strip flush with the opposite end (Fig. 77). 

Place the remaining two boards together in a similar man- 
ner and fasten at one end only with a strip placed 1/2" from 
the end. 

Nail the unfastened end of one pair to the end of the other 





Fig. 78. Roof sections nailed together. FiG. 79. Attaching side slats. 

pair which has the strip attached flush with the end (Fig. 78). 
This joint forms the ridge of the roof of the coop. The cleat 
should be on the under side, and nails should enter it as well 
as the ends of the boards to which it is fastened when the two 
pairs of boards are nailed together at the ridge. 

39. Fastening Front Strips. Place the roof edgewise 
on the ground and fasten the lower ends together with a 4" or 
6" strip of siding to form the lower front board of the coop 



62 



WOODWORKING 



(Fig. 79) . The lower edge of this board should be high enough 
to permit the coop to set off the ground at least 1-1/2''. A 
pan of water can then be placed under it and be held by it 
when the coop is in use. Before fastening the lower front 
board in place, set a bevel-square to 45 degrees. Mark and 
saw the ends of the board 
to come flush with the out- 
side surfaces of the roof 
boards. A miter box may. 
be used to saw the ends of 
this board and other boards 
to be fastened on the front 
and back (Fig. 80) . Stock for remaining cleats may be sawed 
by using the method of laying out and sawing, as shown in 
Fig. 81. 

In a similar manner, mark, saw and nail the remaining front 
strips which may be laths or narrow strips of wood. A 
space of from 1" to 1-1/2" should be left between adjacent 





\ - V- ■■ / t 




;>^^=" !2f.„- k'o- 
















1 1 

Li L 




i ii 





Fig. 80. Miter box. 



[z; 



Board I is just below board "2 when 

NAILED IM POSITION 



] 



V-WlOTM BtTWHNl 
_t STRIPS 



Fig. 81. Method of laying out strips. FiG. 82. Gage for spacing slats. 

strips, all of which should be parallel. The space can easily 
be determined by the use of a gage made as shown in Fig. 82. 

40. Fastening Back Boards. Turn the coop over, cut 
and fasten the back boards, beginning at the bottom. Alter- 
nate boards should be reversed in order to save lumber by 
taking advantage of the end cut made at 45 degrees (Fig. 81). 

41. Trimming. Place the coop on the floor in its nat- 
ural position. Ii it does not set squarely on all bottom edges, 



CONSTRUCTING AN ASSEMBLY PROBLEM 63 

plane those which are too low until all surfaces rest on the 
floor. In case the ends of the front or back hoards project 
over the surface of the roof boards, they should be planed 
flush with these boards. 

42. Checking Estimate. Measure carefully all stock 
used, and determine the number of board feet of lumber in the 
project. Compare this amount with the original estimate. 
If this and the planning at the beginning of a project are both 
done whenever a project is constructed, you will gain in effi- 
ciency in making close estimates and in planning to save both 
material and time. 



CHAPTER VI 
Chiseling; Making Common Framing Joints 

Suggested Projects: 

a) Milk stool (Fig. 83). 

h) Combination milk stool and pail rest (Fig. 84). 

c) Harness rack (Fig. 85). 

d) Harness clamp (Fig. S6). 

e) Seed tester (Fig. 87). 

f) Saw horse (Fig. 88). 




ijxa 



Fig. 83. Milk stool. 



H 



■)8- 



k-4- 



^C 



-IZ- 



HALF LAP- 



Fig. 84. Combination milk stpol and pail rest. 
64 



MAKING COMMON FRAMING JOINTS 



65 





Fig. 85. Harness rack. 



Fig. 86. Harness clamp. 




Fig. 87. Seed tester. 




Fig. 88. Saw horse. 



66 



WOODWORKING 



43. Tools. The tools emphasized in this group are the 
different kinds of chisels. (See Classification, page 29.) Aux- 
iliary tools described are the double gage, mallet, and nailset. 



n 




Fig. 89. Socket chisel. 



Fig. 90. Tang chisel. 




44. Preliminary Instruction. For carpentry work, a 
heavy chisel is required, one in which the handle fits into a 
socket in the chisel blade, called the socket chisel (Fig. 89). 
For ordinary use, however, even tho the handle of the chisel 

will be struck with a mallet 
occasionally, but lightly, a 
chisel with a spike on the end 
of it (a "tang'') which fits into 
the handle is used (Fig. 90). 
^ The work a chisel does is 

H^ ^' ^ divided into two classes, de- 

^^ *^puj ^2^^pP pending upon the relation of 
^H K /^^iMp^^ the direction of cutting and the 

^H Bml grain of the wood cut. When 

the chisel cuts with the grain 
(Fig. 91), it is said to pare off 
a shaving, and the process is called paring. When a chisel 
cuts across the grain, whether abruptly or at a sharp angle 
with the wood fiber, it is said to be cutting crosswise, and 
the process is called cross-chiseling (Fig. 92). In case one 
cuts across the grain in a vertical position, the process is 
called vertical chiseling. It is in cross or vertical chiseling 
that the mallet is much used to force the chisel across the 



Fig. 91. Paring with chisel. 



MAKING COMMON FRAMING JOINTS 



67 



grain. Such work is illustrated by the cutting of joints such 
as the tenon and mortise joint, in which the mortise is 
chiseled out. 

A chisel is ground and whetted in the manner described for 
sharpening a plane-iron (Sec. 26). 

Working Instructions for Seed Tester: 

Stock: Four 1" x 3-1/2" x 6" hard pine S2S. 

Four V X 6-1/4" x 6" matched flooring S2S. 
Six-penny (6d) nails and 1-1/2" brads. 

45. Purpose of Seed Tester. The following instruc- 
tions are for the seed tester, or germinating box, which is used 
to test the fertility of seeds. 
As the soil must be moist for 
this purpose, the box must be 
made strong to withstand the 
effect of the moisture, which 
has a tendency to open up 
joints and change the shape of 
boards by warping or winding. 

It is for this reason that the 
corners of the box are made 
with a lock joint, and that the 
tongues of the joint are glued 
and Lailed together (Figs. 87 
and 93). 

The upper surface of the soil 
is blocked off into squares that 
each one may be used for an individual seed or a group cf 
seeds. These squares are determined by a cord strung be- 
tween the opposite sides of the box (Fig. 87). 




Fig. 92. Chiseling across the 
grain. 



68 



WOODWORKING 



46. Rough Cutting. If necessary, rip the pieces for the 
sides of the box from a board, and square and saw each to the 
required length. Plane each board to width (3-l/2'0 and 
thickness (3/4'0. 





Fig. 93. Corner joint for 
seed tester. 



Fig. 94. First step in lay- 
ing out joint. 



47. Laying Out. On the face side of each board, which 
should become the inside surface of a side of the box, square a 
knife line 1" from each end, or a distance equal to the thick- 
ness of the stock. Continue this as a fine pencil line around 
the piece. 




Fig. 95. Second step. 




Fig. 96. Waste wood 
marked for removal. 



From the joint edge, which should become the upper edge 
of a side of the box, gage consecutively on the end and on both 
surfaces of each end of each board a line 3/4" from the joint 
edge to form the first dovetail line (Fig. 94). Reset the gage 
to 1-3/8" (3/4" + 5/8"), and in a similar manner gage the sec- 
ond dovetail line on each end of each piece (Fig. 95). Contin- 
ue this process of gaging, adding 3/4" and 5/8" alternately 
until all cuts are indicated. On the end of each board, mark 
with a pencil the parts of the joint to be removed (Fig. 96). 

48. Sawing. Saw with the rip-saw to each line in the 



MAKING COMMON FRAMING JOINTS 



69 




Fig. 97. Sawing 
the joints. 



stock to te removed. Saw with a crosscut-saw, to the shoul- 
ders, those corners to be removed (Fig. 97). 

49. Chiseling Joints." Lay each board flat on a wooden 
surface and chisel out remaining parts of joint to be removed. 
The chisel should be held at an angle, and the first cut should 
be made near, but not on the shoulder line (Fig. 98). The 

last cut should be made by holding the 
edge of the chisel on this line, perpendicu- 
lar with the surface of the board, the depth 
of the cut being about one-half the thick- 
ness of the board (Fig. 99). Reverse the 
board, again place the edge of the chisel on 
the line, and gently tap the chisel with mallet, or push it 
with right hand thru to meet the opposite cut already 
formed. This must be done with 
great care not to under-cut the joint 
to any appreciable extent. 

The sides of the tongues formed by 
the rip-saw cuts should not be touch- 
ed with a chisel unless the saw has not cut to the gage lines. 
In this case, the chisel should be used to pare off this super- 
fluous stock (Fig. 91). 

50. Fastening Corners. Drive a 1-1/2" brad thru each 
projecting piece of the joint, as shown in Fig. 100. Before 

driving the nails in the corners, cover 

each sliding surface of each joint with 

cold or hot glue. 

51. Nailing Bottom. The bottom 

^ . boards may be nailed onto the lower 

Fig. 99. Finishing the 
chisel cut. edges of the sides of the box with six- 




FiG. 98. Chiseling dove 
tails. 




70 



WOODWORKING 



penny common nails (Fig. 101). Each bottom board should 
be squared and sawed to length before it is nailed in place. 

A more satisfactory box in appearance and in strength , but 
one more difficult to make, would have the bottom set inside 
of the sides of the box and nailed from 
the outside. Such a bottom would be 
completely fitted and set in place at 
one time (Fig. 102). 

52. Marking Edges. With pencil 
and ruler, divide the length of the inside 
of each side of the box into equal spaces — 1", 1-1/2" or 2" — 
depending upon the distance the strings on the top of the box 
are to be separated. 

Square a light pencil line across the upper edge of each 




Fig. 100. Position of 
nails in joints. 





Fig. 101. Method of at- 
taching the bottom. 



Fig. 102. The bottom 
fitted inside of side 
pieces. 



board at the points located, and place at the center of each of 
these lines a 1-1/2" brad (Fig. 103). The brad should be 
driven into the wood to allow the head 
to project 1/4" above the surface of 
the wood. Continue the process until 
all brads are driven in place. 

String the cord continuously back Fig. 103. Location of nails 

. . 1 for stringing. 

and forth between the opposite sides 

of the box, the cord running between one pair of sides to be 




MAKING COMMON FRAMING JOINTS 



71 



at right angles with that strung between the sides of the 
other pair. 

53. Supplementary Instructions. In the instruc- 
tions for the seed tester, two operations in which the 

chisel is a principal tool are not fully 
described, viz. — (a) paring a broad 
surface and (b) cutting a mortise. 

^ , ^ , , , , . , Examples of the former are found in 
Fig. 104. Making the ^ 

joints for saw horse. the body of the saw horse, where a re- 






FiG. 105. Method of chiseling 
joints. 



Fig. 106. Layout of joint 



for milking stool. 

cess for the leg is formed, or in the upright of the harness 
clamp, where supporting surfaces for the barrel staves are 
formed ; while the latter is used in working out and cutting a 
mortise and tenon for the joint in the milking stool. 

54. Special Operations. After the recess for the saw 
horse leg is laid out in the body of the saw horse, and the 
shoulders are cut with a crosscut-saw (Fig. 104), the waste 
stock must be removed. Fig. 105 shows how the chisel is 
used in taking paring cuts. The waste stock being removed, 
the surface is finally tested with a try-square blade used as a 
straight-edge to determine when the surface is perfectly true. 

To lay off the tenon on the top of the upright piece in the 
milking stool, the try-square and single- or double-marking 
gage should be used and lines drawn, as indicated in Fig. 106. 

Parallel lines can be made at one time with the double gage 
(Fig. 107). The cross-hatched part of Fig. 106 represents the 



72 



WOODWORKING 



end of the tenon. Saw to lines a with crosscut-saw in waste 
stock. Saw to lines h in waste stock with rip-saw. 

Fig. 108 shows the joint for the milking stool with the rec- 
tangle representing the mortise made up of lines marked h, 
corresponding to similarly-lettered 
lines on top of upright. The long 




Fig. 107. Gaging 
joint for milking 
stool. 




Fig. 108. The joint com- 
pleted. 



lines of this rectangular hole should be made on both 
top and bottom of board with the marking gage, the short 
lines with knife and try-square. The extension of the short 




Fig. 109. Boring out the mortise. 

lines marked h about the edge of the board suggests how the 
try-square will be used to secure lines on the under side of the 
board corresponding to those on the top side. 

The mortise should be bored out by the process illustrated 
in Fig. 109, the ends of the mortise chiseled as described in 
Sec. 49, and the sides of the mortise pared out as described in 
Sec. 44. 



CHAPTER VII 

Use of Modeling or Forming Tools; Shaping Irregular 

Forms 

Suggested Projects: 

a) Hammer handle (Fig. 110). 

b) Hatchet handle (Fig. 111). 

c) Neckyoke (Fig. 112). 

d) Singletree (Fig. 113). 

e) Shoulder carrier (Fig. 114). 




Fig. 110. Hammer handle. 



Fig. 111. Hatchet handle. 



H'iKi 




H'^^^^h 



Fig. 112. Neckyoke.. 



Fig. 113. Singletree. 



Model to fit shoulders 




^k-7H 



Fig. 114. Shoulder carrier. 
73 



74 WOODWORKING 

55. Modeling Tools. Under the classification of tools 
(Sec. 7), are listed those in common use. Among these, but 
not under a single heading, are those which are used princi- 
pally for fashioning irregular surfaces. In such a group are 
found the spoke-shave, the draw-knife and similar tools; the 
hatchet, ax and adz, and also such miscellaneous tools as the 
turning-saw, woodrasp and gage (Fig. 5). 

Perhaps in no place where woodworking hand tools are in 
common use are the modeling tools more generally used than 
on the farm, with the possible exception of the cooper shop. 
The cutting edge of any one of these tools, except the turning- 
saw and file, is, in form and use, both a chisel and a knife, yet 
none of them are used either as the chisel or knife. 

Both the draw-knife and the spoke-shave (Fig. 5) are 
chisels with a handle at either end of the cutting edge. In the 
case of the spoke-shave, the thickness of the shaving is con- 
trolled by a gage in an opening in the shoe or bed-plate of the 
spoke-shave. There is also similarity in construction be- 
tween this tool and the plane. 

On the other hand, the hatchet, ax and adz are chisels, but 
controlled differently from either the chisel or the spoke-shave 
and draw-knife. The descriptive matter under heading, 
''Working Instructions," in the following pages, suggests 
the use of each of these tools, and should be studied care- 
fully in connection with the illustrations. 

The instructions given are for making the hatchet handle. 
This project includes the principal modeling exercises for the 
majority of the forming tools herein listed. 



USE OF MODELING OR FORMING TOOLS 



75 



Working Instructions for Hatchet Handle: 

56. Squaring the Stock — Laying Out. Plane stock to 
over all dimensions, 3/4" x 1-1/2'' x 14". 

On the face side, sketch the outline of the handle, as shown 
in Fig. 115. Taper the front end of the handle to 1/2" thick- 
ness on the end, beginning the taper at a point 4" from this 
end, as shown in the edge view of the mechanical drawing of 
the handle. 

57. Using the Turning-saw. Place the stock upright 
in the vise, one-half its length being above the vise. Stand in 

front of the vise in position to saw 
(Fig. 115). 

Grasp the turning-saw in hands, 
as shown in Fig. 115, the teeth 
pointing toward the operator. 
Move the saw away from you to 
start the saw cut, or kerf; then 
toward you without downward 
pressure, until the saw blade has 
begun to cut. Continue to move 
the saw backward and forward the 
approximate length of the saw 
blade, holding the frame vertically except when necessary to 
vary from this position in order not to have the frame strike 
the stock. Gradually turn the right hand as forward strokes 
are made to direct the saw blade on the curve. 

Where possible, the saw cut should be taken over the grain. 
However, unless the saw can be removed from stock and 
started in a new place without much difficulty, it is best to 
complete a saw cut regardless of relation of wood fiber to saw 




Fig. 115. Correct use of 
turning saw. 



76 



WOODWORKING 




cut. Continue work with the turning-saw until the complete 
outline of the handle is sawed out. 

58. Useof the Spoke-shave. Place the stock in vise, as 
illustrated in Fig. 116. Stand at end of vise, bending slightly 
over stock with spoke-shave grasped firmly, but not rigidly, in 

both hands. Draw or 
push it over the grain, 
holding the blade square 
with the face side, but al- 
lowing one hand to lead 
the other slightly, that the 
shaving may be cut more 
readily. It may be advis- 
able to shift the position 
Fig. 116. Using the spoke-shave, ^f the stock in the vise 

from time to time, that the tool may be used with the 
least difficulty. 

When the spoke-shaved edges are square with the face 
side, the corners should be taken off to form a cross-section, 
as shown in Fig. Ill and Fig. 117. Care 
must be taken to remove no more stock 
than must be taken off finally to secure a 
good oval-shaped handle. The oval should 
be an ellipse. 

After tlie first corners are removed, the 
process of cutting off corners should be 
continued, as shown in Fig. 117, to secure 
the closest approximation to an ellipticalFic. 117. steps in 
cross-section. The front end of the han- 
dle may now be modeled to fit the hatchet head. This may 




USE OF MODELING OR FORMING TOOLS 77 

be done with the spoke-shave or the plane, or partly by the 
use of each. 

59. Scraping and Sandpapering. Finally, all irregu- 
lar surfaces should be scraped with a piece of glass or a steel 
scraper, and sandpapered, first using the sandpaper on a 
block and moving the block slowly around the handle as it is 
moved back and forth lengthwise with the grain. Finally, 
with the sandpaper in the hand, continue to move the paper 
lengthwise to secure the finished surface. Cross strokes with 
the sandpaper may be taken if followed by strokes with the 
grain. 

Supplementary Instructions : 

60. The Wood Rasp. In some cases, it is advisable to 
use a wood rasp (Fig. 5) separately or in conjunction with 
the spoke-shave, scraper and sandpaper in modeling a piece 
of wood to an irregular form and shape. If a spoke-shave 
had not been available for use on the hatchet handle, the 
same general procedure could have been followed with the 
wood rasp in modeling the form for each of the different 
shapes described, viz. — rectangular cross-section, eight-sided 
cross-section, etc. 

The wood rasp is held like a file. It is pushed forward with 
pressure for the cutting stroke, and lightly drawn back in con- 
tact with the wood, or lifted from the wood entirely on the re- 
turn stroke. As it is pushed, it is rolled slightly and, also, 
moved lengthwise on the stock, thus avoiding rutting or 
gouging the wood. 

The hatchet, ax or adz may be used to remove a consider- 
able portion of stock to secure roughly the desired form or 
shape. 



78 WOODWORKING 

Of the projects listed in this group, Uttle or no difficulty 
should be experienced in securing the result indicated by the 
drawings, if the instructions for the hatchet handle are fol- 
lowed as a guide. 

61. The Shoulder Carrier. The most difficult project 
to form is the shoulder carrier. This may be modeled from a 
straight-grained, well-seasoned piece of cord-wood, or from a 
heavy plank. It is advisable to cut out with the turning-saw 
the shape of the carrier shown in the top view% or the one you 
would get if looking down on the carrier as it is placed on 
one's shoulders. Next, model the upper surface with a draw- 
knife, spoke-shave and wood rasp. Finally, the under surface 
should be modeled to fit over the shoulders. This work may 
be done with an outside ground gouge (Fig. 5). It is pushed 
into the wood with the grain, and, as the right hand is low- 
ered, the stock is removed and the desired shape is secured. 
The convex, concave and cylindrical surfaces of the carrier 
may all be smoothed finally with a wood rasp or sandpaper, or 
both. 



CHAPTER VIII 

Supplementary Projects 

62. Sheep Rack and Feed Bunk (Fig. 118). 

Directions: 

1) Frame up each end with V^ x 10" boards 3' C long, 

cleated together on the outside by the two 1^x4" strips, and 

on the inside by the 1" x 3'' strip upon which the trough floor 
is to rest. Flush with the upper edge of this cleat, and with 

each of the outside edges of the bunk end, fasten the 2" x 4" 

corner posts or legs. 




Section X-Y 



Fig. 118. Sheep rack and feed bunk. 

2) Fasten the two bunk ends together by nailing in place 
the top and bottom bunk rails. 

3) Lay the floor, nailing boards to the floor cleats on the 
bunk ends and to the top of the legs. Fit the middle ''V" 
feed guides and the outside trough edge boards, nailing ends 
of the same from outside of bunk end. 

4) From lower edges of feed guides to upper corners of ends 
of bunk, draw lines to locate guide boards for the 1" x 12'' 
board and rack which hold feed. Construct and nail these 
guides in place. 

79 



80 



WOODWORKING 



5) Cut slats for rack and fasten together at top ends by 
means of a 1'' x 3" board, to which all are squarely nailed. 

6) Nail 1" X 12'' feed boards in position to the inside guide 
boards (A). 

7) Place feed rack in position, supported by outside guide 
boards (B) . Toe-nail the bottom of each rack slat to the ''V" 




FlG. 119. Woodworking bench. 

feed guide board, and nail the top of the rack securely to the 
1" X 12'' feed board, over the lower edge of which they should 
lap by 3". This should be done after the 1" x 6" slide has 
been placed in position. This should slide in the openings be- 
tween the feed rack and the inside end guide boards with diffi- 
culty, that it may be held in any particular position by fric- 
tion, or it should be fastened thru grooves in the end boards of 
rack by means of wing nut bolts. 

63. Directions for Woodworking Bench (Fig. 119). 
1) Construct the frame by planing for each end: 
2 oak boards (uprights), each 1-3/4" x 4" x 2' 6". 
1 oak board (lower crosspiece), 1-3/4" x 3" x 2' 5". 
1 pine board (upper crosspiece), 1" x 11" x 2' 4". 



SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS 81 

2) Lay out and construct the mortise and tenon joints to 
join the front and back uprights with the lower crosspiece. 
Tenons may be full width, viz., 3" wide and 3/4'' thick. 
Length between tenon shoulders, 2' 1/2''. 

3) Assemble each frame by joining the parts; the lower 
crosspiece to be fastened to the uprights by gluing joints, and 
clamped for at least twelve hours, and the upper connecting 
piece to be nailed in position as soon as clamps are applied to 
the lower part of the frame. 

4) Construct the front of the vise, planing it to dimensions 
as given in the drawing. Fasten the lower guide piece in with 
glue and nail it from each edge of the vise board. The stag- 
gered holes in guide piece for vise, in which to insert pin to 
keep the lower portion of the vise board the proper distance 
from the bench, should each be 1/2" in diameter, in two rows 
each about 1" from the edge of the guide board, holes to be 2" 
apart in each row. 

5) Nail front and back side boards, or rails, of the bench 
onto the end sections. 

6) Purchase a 1-1/4" iron vise screw. Bore the holes for 
this in vise board and bench, and cut the slot for the vise 
guide board. Assemble vise. 

7) Cut the opening for the drawer 2' x 8" in upper portion 
of center of front board, and fasten in place the runner and 
guide boards for the drawer by nailing or screwing into their 
ends thru front and back boards. 

8) Lay the top boards on. These may be of oak, altho 
dressed pine will suffice. Joints between boards must be 
tight. They need not be glued. 

9) Construct drawer, as shown by drawer details of joints, 



82 



WOODWORKING 



and fit in bench to slide freely. The bottom of the drawer 
may be nailed onto cleats fastened to the lower inside surfaces 
of the sides of drawer. 

64. Working Directions for Dog House (Fig. 120). 

1) Cut 2'' X 4'"s to proper lengths for either sills or plates, 
and one-half the number of studs. 

2) Rip all pieces of 2" x 4" into 2" x 2'' strips. 




a. Bosj-J 



Fig. 120. Dog house. 

3) Construct sill and plate frames with horizontal half-lap 
corner joints, and connect sill and plate frames with studs by 
nailing thru frames into ends of studs. 

4) Nail on sheathing (fence boards), lapping side boards 
over ends of end boards. 

5) Beginning at the bottom, cut and nail on siding on sides 
and ends. 

6) Cut and nail on roof boards (fence boards), allowing 
space of V between boards. 

7) Shingle roof, beginning at eaves and working toward 
ridge, breaking joints for every two consecutive layers or 
rows of shingles. 

8) Cut, fit and nail ridge, facing, corner, base, and trim 
boards. 



SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS 



83 



-*l4- 



65. Directions for Corn Drier (Fig. 121). 

1) Secure pine lumber 1" thick, 3-1/2'' or 4" wide, and 16'- 
0" long, dressed. 

2) Cut each piece to form lengths for parts of drier with 
least possible waste. Example: 10' and 6' or 6', 6' and 4' (2 
braces). 

3) Nail, as shown in 
drawing, nailing two 
pieces together, surface 
to surface for ends. 
Toe-nail in braces. Use 
six -penny and eight- 
penny common nails. 

4) On end pieces and Fig. 121. Corn drier. 
vertical center piece, with two-foot rule or carpenter's square, 
lay off points with pencil on front and back for spacing wire. 
Drive shingle-nail, or 1-1/2" brad at each point. 




\.i-~—A 




-3-2 — 



-l-S- 



-1-6- 



l^=- 



CROSS SECTION 



FRONT VIEW 



VI 



^m 



-l»i<.io 




-i»3 Ciezxt to 
yiol3 sll3e 

'Door pull on slide 
l«G«io" 



END VIEW 



Fig. 122. Self-feeder. 



5) Wind wire (1/16" annealed iron), taking one turn about 
each nail. 

66. Making the Seli-Feeder (Fig. 122) . 

1) Cut ends to dimension — 10" x 3' 0"^ — bottom end square 



84 



WOODWORKING 



and top end tapered toward the front to make it 2' 10'' long. 
2) Cut center partition to overall dimensions of end boards. 
Bevel front and back edges of lower end to fit to deflector 
board on the back, and to the front board, to which the ad- 
justable slide is attached on the front. 

' 3) Nail cleat 2!' wide on inside surfaces of end boards at the 
bottom, upon which floor will rest; also \" x 3'' cleat to hold 
slide, as marked in front view of drawing. 

4) Nail to edges of end and center partition boards ship-lap 
to form vertical portion of front of feeder and all of back of 
feeder. 

5) Lay floor of ship-lap on inside bottom cleats fastened on 
end boards of feeder. Cut deflector board and toe-nail into 

position. 

6) Cut slanting VI" board of front 
of feeder, bore holes for 1/2" wing-nut 
bolts and nail board in position to 
lower front edge of center partition 
board. Thru end boards of feeder nail 
into ends of this slanting front board. 

7) Cut adjustable slide board to dimensions, cut slots for 
wing bolts, attach handles and fit board in position. 

8) Bevel front edge of floor and attach front board of tray. 
Nail on end bottom boards. 

9) Nail ship-lap to cleats for top. Hinge at rear with two 
4" leaf strap hinges. 

10) Paint outside of feeder with brown creosote paint. 
67. Making the Egg Tester (Fig. 123). 

1) Secure stock from one board 8" wide, or from more than 
one board of shorter length, but the same width, to construct 
the complete box. 



II^Hole-, < 
1 ^ ' 








h-6-' 

Fig. 123. Egg tester. 



SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS 



85 



> 



2) Cut stock to convenient planing lengths, each to cut 
finally into a certain number of pieces for the box. A little 
must be allowed in length for crosscutting and squaring ends. 

3) Plane stock to dimensions. Saw to proper lengths and 
square ends. 

4) Taper front edges of side boards. 

5) Set bevel-square for angle of front edge of top board and 
ends of front board. Mark and trim to proper 
angles. 

6) Bore 1-1/2'' hole and 1-1/4" hole in cen- 
ters of top and front boards, respectively. 

7) Nail box together with six-penny (6d) 
finish nails in the following order: Back, bot- 
tom, front vertical board, top to sides; front 
slanting board. 

68. Constructing a Cow Stanchion (Fig. 
124). 

1) Select straight-grained hickory, oak or 
other close-grained, tough wood from 2" or 
1-1/2" dressed plank. 

2) Rip stock to width or thickness to secure 
strips which will dress to 1-1/2" x 2". 

3) Plane strips to correct width and thickness. 

4) Square and saw strips to correct lengths. 

5) Bore 3/8" holes in center of end pieces for chain bolts. 

6) Bore 3/8" hole in upper end piece for corner fastening 
clamp. (Position of hole depends on length of clamp.) 

7) Bevel lower end piece and one side piece, each on one end 
to 45 degrees for hinged corner. 



T 



-7^ — 



-^Si- 



J 



Fig. 124. Cow 
stanchion. 



86 



WOODWORKING 



8) Fasten corner angle iron with V flathead screws to in- 
side of each end piece to draw tightly to side piece when 
screwed to it. Drill small holes for screws. 

9) Fasten remaining side of each angle iron to side piece. 
First place in position, mark for screw holes, and then drill 
for them. 

10) Fasten strap hinge in manner similar to that used in 
fastening angle irons. 

11) Drill small holes for staples for corner chain. 

12) Fasten chain and corner clamp bolts by setting up nuts 
over washers and burr ends of bolts slightly. 

69. Making Tomato Trellis (Fig. 125). 

1) Secure eleven 12' strips of pine, 3" or 3-1/2" wide. Pine 




Fig. 125. Tomato trellis. 



flooring or 6'' pine fence boards ripped in two will be satisfac- 
tory. 

2) Cut from each of three strips two pieces 5' 0" long. 

3) Two feet from one end of each of the 5' strips, bore a 1/4" 
hole in the middle of the stock. 

4) Fasten two of the strips together with a 1/4" bolt, using 
a washer under the head and under the nut, to form one end 
of the rack. In like manner, make the remaining two sup- 
ports, one for the opposite end and one for the middle of the 
rack. 



SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS 



87 



5) Nail four of the 12' strips evenly spaced on the 3' leg of 
each support, allowing the strips to project 12" on the end of 
the frame beyond the end support, and leaving sufficient 
space below the strip nearest the hinge for the vines. Place 
the middle support centrally in the frame. 

6) Put strong screw-eyes at the top of each bar of each end 
support, in which to fasten wire or cord to hold the top edges 
at a fixed position when the frame is in place. 

70. Feed Bunk for Cattle (Fig. 126). 

1) Construct each trestle or pair of legs by first cutting to 




2'^4Br3^ces I ^^2x4x6" Block 

Gross ,5ection 
Fig. 126. Feed bunk for cattle. 

length the four legs from 4" x 4" stock and connecting each 
pair with the four 2" x 4'' cross and brace pieces. 

First nail in position the two crosspieces on one side of a 
pair of legs, then insert and nail securely to this pair of cross- 
pieces the two leg frame braces. Now nail on the two re- 
maining crosspieces, both to the legs and the braces. Finally, 
nail on the 6", 2" x 4" block lengthwise of the bunk in the 
center of the lower crosspieces, allowing it to rest 1'' on each 
crosspiece. 

2) Construct the frame of the box from 1-1/2'' x 10" or 2" x 
10" stock. Bore holes to secure the sides to the end pieces. 
Note that the end boards of frame rest on floor boards. 



88 



WOODWORKING 



3) Turn box bottom side up. Lay and nail floor boards to 
end boards, and nail on 2" x 4" crosspieces. 

4) While box is bottom side up, place leg frames in position 
and bore holes thru legs and side rails of box. Insert and 
fasten bolts. Fit and nail the four length braces in position, 
carefully locating center position for them on the crosspieces. 
The lower ends of these braces butt against the 6'', 2'' x 4" 
blocks already nailed to the lower leg frame crosspieces. 

5) Place bunk in upright position and insert and tighten 
end rods. 

71. Saw Buck (Fig. 127). 

1) Saw legs of frame to lengths from 3'' x 4" stock. 



.1. 



-10 — 




16 -!2U- 



FlG. 127. Saw buck. 



2) Locate, lay out and cut half -lap joints for each end of 
frame. 

3) Lay out and cut 2'' notches for thickness and width of 
connecting braces. 

4) Bore holes for center rod in each half -lap joint connect- 
ing ends of frame. Do this when each end of frame is halved 
together. 

5) Plane and fit all brace rods. 

6) Form center rod, using draw-knife and spoke-shave on 



SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS 



89 



center portion of rod, saw to cut shoulder and use chisel and 
wood rasp to form ends of rod. 

7) Nail cross braces on each end frame and trim ends with 
plane. 

8) Place center rod in position and wedge ends with thin 
wooden wedge. 

9) Nail length braces in place and trim edges. 

10) Place saw buck upright on level floor. With open 
dividers, scribe line for bottom of legs; saw to lines. 

72. Chicken Feeder (Fig. 128). 

1) Cut nine pieces from 6" fence boards, each 2' 6" long. 

2) Construct each of the 
ends and the partition of the 
feeder by nailing three of these 
pieces together with a cleat at 
the bottom and another at the 
upper edge 2' 0'' from the 
bottom. 

3) Lay out upon a vertical 
center line of each end board thus constructed the shape of 
the feeder end according to dimensions. Saw to shape. 

4) Saw 6'' fence boards to lengths of 2/ ^" for sides. 

5) Cut out corners a distance of 3'' on the lower edge of two 
of the side boards to fit between the end pieces at the bottom 
of the feed box. Nail each in position for lower board of each 
side. Nail other side boards on from bottom to top. Dress 
w ith plane upper edge of top side boards at roof angle to allow 
roof boards to fit on same closely. 

6) Saw, fit and nail on bottom, roof and side boards for 
tray. Use 8d. common nails. 




Fig. 128. Chicken feeder. 



90 



WOODWORKING 



73. Garden Marker (Fig. 129). 

1) Secure stock as follows: 

One 2'' X 4'^ X 4' 0". 
One V X 6'' x S' 0'\ 
Short stock for braces and marking pins may be secured 
from waste from handle. 

2) Plane bed board to dimensions; bevel front edge. 

3) Locate centers for marker pin holes on top and bottom 
surfaces of bed board by means of marking gage and try- 
square. Angle of pin should be about 15 degrees to a vertical 
line. 

4) Bore 1-1/4'' holes for marker 
pins, working from each side of 
bed board. With jack-knife, ream 
out holes on top side to approxi- 
mately 1-1/2". 

5) Shape handle, nail securely in 
place, and brace with pieces of 
stock ripped from handle on under 

Fig. 129. Garden marker. side. 

6) From waste stock ripped from handle, or better, from 
pieces of 2" x 4" ripped to 2" square strips, whittle out marker 
pins. Drive pins in place and toe-nail from the top, allowing 
nail heads to project sufficiently so that the nails may be re- 
moved with a hammer. 

74. Individual Hog Cot (Fig. 130). 

1) Frame floor by nailing four 2" x 4'"s edgewise across the 
two 2" X 4" runners, one at each end, front and back, and the 
remaining two evenly dividing the remaining space. 

2) Cut rafters, three for each side, each 6' 6" long. Toe- 




SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS 



91 



nail bottom ends on runners, one at each end and one in the 
middle. Toe-nail tops of rafters of each pair together. 

3) Fasten rafters together on each side by three strips (roof 
stringers) of 1'' x 3'' stock. These preferably should be set in 
(housed) to upper edge of rafters. If so, housings should be 
cut before rafters are placed in position. 



Rid^e Boscrds 



liinqed &t top 
for ventila^tion 




Fig. 130. Hog cot. 

4) Lay floor of 1'' x 6" matched lumber, matching outside 
floor strips to fit around rafters and come flush with outside 
edges of them. 

5) Erect supports or studs front and back under end rafters 
to form framing for door and window. 

6) Toe-nail window framings between studs. 

7) Cover in ends with 1'' x 6'' matched siding, resting bot- 
tom edge of bottom boards on top of runners. 

8) Cover roof with V x 6'^ V x 8'' or V x 10" boards ver- 
tically, nailing each to each roof stringer. Cover each crack 
with a batten (2'' strip), first placing ridge boards in place. 

9) Set window and hinge at top so that it may be opened for 



92 



WOODWORKING 



purpose of ventilation. Place framing strips around door and 
window, if desired, to represent casings. 

10) Fasten large eyebolt in each end of each runner to serve 
as connection in dragging cot from one place to another. 

75. Feed Bunk for Sheep (Fig. 131). 

1) Cut all 2" X 4" stock, viz., four corner posts and tv/o 
horizontal cross-bar supports for the floor, from a 16' piece. 



-2-/»lO«10-0 For floor 



'^^ 



i-i-U 



-lO-C 



3 



1^^%- 



-2-4-- 



CROSS SECTION 



Fig. 131. Feed bunk for sheep. 

2) Secure five boards, each \" x M' x 10' 0", and cut from 
one of them four pieces, each 2/ M' long. 

3) Frame each end of the bunk. 

4) Connect the end frames by nailing the two upper side 
strips in position. 

5) Lay the floor. 

6) Nail in position the two lower side strips to form the 
sides of the feed tray. 

76. Plow Doubletree (Fig. 132). 

1) Select, from 2" hickory -^2i^ '^^^__ccnf^tH. 



or straight-grained oak, 
stock for each of the three 
parts of the doubletree. 
2) Saw and plane each 




-l^k 



Fig. 132. Plow doubletree. 

piece of stock to rectangular shape and to overall dimensions. 
3) Plane back edges of each part to the correct taper, first 



SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS 



93 



making lines with straight-edge and pencil defining these 
edges. 

4) Bore holes for metal fittings. 

5) Secure in stock, or forge out the tug hooks and bolts to 
fasten same to wooden parts; also the iron straps to fasten the 
singletree and doubletree together. 

6) Attach metal fittings. 

77. Wagon Jack (Figs. 133 and 134). 




UpRISMT3 



Fig. 133. Wagon jack. Fig. 134. Another type of wagon jack. 

1) Secure hickory, strong, straight-grained oak or other 
tough wood in following dimensions: 

2 pieces 7/8" x 5" x 2' 2" S2S, uprights. 
2 pieces 7/8'' x 4" x 2' 6" S2S, base strips. 
1 piece 7/8" X 3" X 2' 6" S2S, handle. 
1 piece 7/8" x 4" x 5" S2S, block at bottom between 
uprights. 

2) Saw and plane each piece of stock to shape and dimen- 
sions, as shown in Figs. 133 and 134. 

3) Bore series of 5/8" holes 2" apart, beginning 12" from 
end of handle, each with center 1/2" from upper edge of han- 
dle. 

4) Saw notches, as indicated in Fig. 133, saw-cut in each 
case meeting outer surface of bored hole. 



94 



WOODWORKING 



5) With all pieces fastened together in vise or clamp, bore 
holes for 5/8" bolts to fasten upright to base strips and handle. 

6) Bend 3/4" band iron around lifting end of handle; drill 
and countersink holes for 1" flat -head screws and fasten band 
iron in place. 

7) Assemble all parts of the jack, except the iron rod, to 
hold the handle in particular positions. The bolts used 
should be fastened each with a washer under the head and 
under the nut. 

8) Measure with a cord the distance from one hole into 




Fig. 135. Farm sled. 

which the handle holding iron is to be slipped to the opposite 
one, thru the first notch from the standard on the handle. In 
doing this, lower the lifting end of the handle to the lowest de- 
sired position. Make allowance for the ends of the handle 
holding rod, which will slip into the holes in the standard. 
Add the amount of this allowance to the length of the cord; 
the total length will be that of the handle holding rod. 

9) Cut a 5/8" round wrought-iron rod to the length of the 
cord as calculated. Bend the rod to the desired shape by 
heating portion at bend, and working over end of peen of 
blacksmith anvil. Cool and spring rod into position. 

78. Heavy Farm Sled (Fig. 135). 

1) Cut all stock (rough) to overall lengths. 



SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS 



95 



2) Lay out, saw and cut all joints on similar pieces. Ex- 
ample: Two horizontal parts of runners; two front parts of 
runners: two cross-beams, etc. 

3) Frame together the two parts of each runner, driving 
dowel in with glue, and toe-nailing runner parts together from 
top and bottom. 

4) Put cross-beams in place, driving dowel in place in glue 
and spiking from under side of runner. 

5) Nail long boards of runner frames (bed boards) in posi- 
tion on each cross-beam and on top of runner. 

°!1^ i il. a fi^^Bev^le^ strips 
SECTION A-B 




Fig. 136. Fence-post mold. 



6) Place corner uprights in place, nailing from both sides of 
bed boards and runners. 

7) Nail in position all cross-boards — front and rear of sled, 
inside corners of bed boards and uprights, top of uprights. 

Note: Letter each set of boards, and use letter in opera- 
tion steps. 

79. Fence Post Mold (Fig. 136). 

1) Lay floor on 2" x 4'' cleats, as shown in cross-sectional 
side view. Upper surface of flooring material should be sur- 



96 WOODWORKING 

faced, and joints between boards made close, but not abso- 
lutely tight if lumber is very dry. 

2) Prepare ends by planing one board 4-3/4" wide and 2' 9'' 
long, and the other 6" wide and 3' 5-3/4'' long, out of 3/4'' 
stock. On the first board flush with upper edge, fasten a se- 
ries of 3-1/2" X 3-1/2" blocks, leaving 13/16" between them. 
Begin to fix these blocks at the center of the board where a 
13/16" space is to be left for the middle partition. On the 
second board, fasten 5" x 5" blocks in a similar way. 

3) Prepare seven partition boards dressed on all surfaces, 
3/4" thick, 3-1/2" wide at one end, 5" wide at the other end, 
and 7' 2" long. The ends must be square with the center line 
of the partition board. 

4) Place the two end boards and the partition boards in 
place on the floor and nail into position the 2-1/2" x 5" blocks 
noted on the top view of drawing. 

5) Nail in position end blocks on each end board thru which 
3/8" rods pass. These should touch, but not bend, the out- 
side partition boards. Locate position of holes for rods to 
come in center of space on end boards outside of the last par- 
tition board. Locate position of hinges on small end board. 

6) Remove end boards, bore holes for rod, fasten on hinges 
and replace end boards, inserting side rods and fastening 
hinges to floor (see end view). 

7) Remove partition boards, prepare beveled strips (section 
A), fasten them to the floor, and replace the boards. 

8) Cover inside surfaces for each individual mould with 
linseed oil. 



CHAPTER IX 
Wood-Finishing and Painting 

80. Purpose of Wood-Finishing. With few exceptions, 
all woodwork, whether exposed to the weather or used under 
cover, is given some sort of surface finish. The object of 
wood-finishing is twofold, viz.: 

First, to preserve the wood. All wood is porous and, con- 
sequently, absorbs moisture. With the change of tempera- 
ture and amount of humidity in the atmosphere, the quantity 
of moisture taken up by wood will vary. The change in the 
moisture content of wood causes a change in its shape, known 
as warp (the word used for buckling) and wind (the word used 
for twisting). 

The absorption of moisture by wood is accompanied by 
swelling. As wood dries, it shrinks, thus causing checks and 
cracks. 

Second, to decorate the wood. Decoration may be natural 
or artificial. Any substance such as oil or wax which, when 
applied to the surface of wood, brings out its natural mark- 
ings and colorings, is regarded as a natural decorative agent. 
Any substance such as colored stain or paint, which covers 
the grain of wood when applied to it, may be made a deco- 
rative agent, but is considered artificial, as it changes the 
natural appearance. 

81. Method of Preservation. Both the natural and 
artificial wood-finishing agents serve to seal the pores of the 
wood . All stains have a tendency to enter the wood fibre and 

97 



98 WOODWORKING 

to close the pores, but not to fill the cells or larger holes and 
openings. Paint, on the other hand, covers the entire sur- 
face of the wood and, consequently, fills all openings — both 
pores and cells, as well as such artificial openings as cracks 
and checks. It must be evident, therefore, that for exposed 
woodwork, paint is the most satisfactory physical preserva- 
tive covering. However, besides the fact that it obliterates 
the material appearance of the wood, it has the possible dis- 
advantage of checking and peeling. On the other hand, 
when a stain has some inherent preserving quality, chemical 
or otherwise, it results in both protecting the wood and pre- 
serving its natural beauty. 

82. Classification of Wood Finishes. 

A. Non-covering agents may be divided as follows: 

1. Oil. 

2. Wax. 

3. Stain 

a. Water. 
h. Oil. 

c. Chemical. 

d. Creosote. 

B, Covering agents may be divided as follows: 

1. Shellac 
a. White. 
h. Orange. 

2. Varnish 

3. Filler. 

4. Paint. 

83. Oil Stain is used on work which does not require a 
high finish, but which, to present the full effect of the natural 



WOOD-FINISHING AND PAINTING 99 

grain, needs a light coat of finishing material. Raw linseed 
oil is generally used for this purpose. That it may penetrate 
to the greatest extent, the oil should be applied when hot. A 
soft cloth, cotton waste or a brush may be used. When the 
oil has evaporated, or has set in the wood, a brisk rubbing will 
secure a dull polish, which, however, will not long continue ex- 
cept by repeated rubbing, which may be done on inside work 
in the process of dusting. 

Oak, when used outside, as for garden furniture, is pro- 
tected somewhat from the weather when given coats of hot 
linseed oil two or three times annually. 

84. Wax. This may be secured in cans as ''prepared 
wax." It is frequently used to give a natural finish of low 
gloss. This material is a substitute for oil and serves not so 
much as a preservative by means of penetration as by virtue 
of its filling up openings. When rubbed with a soft cloth, it 
gives a velvet-like polish. Wax hardens with time and, 
therefore, makes a very satisfactory wood finish, especially if 
new coats are added from time to time and if the waxed sur- 
faces are rubbed occasionally. 

85. Water Stains are the simplest of all liquid finishes to 
apply. They are sold both in powder and liquid form. A 
water stain is applied with a brush and, before dry, is rubbed 
with a cloth or with waste. If care is taken in mixing and ap- 
plying, there is little difficulty in securing a uniform color. 
Wax or one of the class B finishes may be used after the stain 
has dried. 

Before applying a water stain, the wood should be thoroly 
scraped and sandpapered, and then 'Vet down'' with water. 
Water raises the grain as would the water stain if applied first. 



100 WOODWORKING 

When the wood surface has dried after the apphcation of the 
water, it should be thoroly sanded. The apphcation of the 
water stain will raise the grain slightly, but not sufficiently to 
require sanding, which, of course, would injure the appear- 
ance of the stained wood. 

86. Oil Stains; Chemical Stains. These are applied 
in the manner described for water stains, except that the 
previous washing is omitted. An oil stain will strike into 
the wood more freely than will a water stain, and, conse- 
quently, because of the variation in the porosity of the aver- 
age piece of wood, and especially of different pieces of wood 
assembled in one unit, difficulty is sometimes experienced in 
getting a uniform color. It may be necessary on particularly 
porous woods to dilute an oil stain, or to apply a thinner 
coat than would be used on a less porous part or piece of 
wood. Wax or one of the class B finishes may be used after an 
oil stain has dried and the surface oil has evaporated thoroly. 

Chemical stains, which now constitute the largest part 
of those to be secured in the open market, are prepared 
to overcome the disadvantages of poor penetrating qualities of 
water stains and the uneven penetration of oil stains. They 
prove quite satisfactory in giving a uniform and well-set color 
on wood of fairly uniform quality. They may be covered 
either with wax or the finishes under class B. 

87. Coal-tar Creosote Oil. The preservation of wood 
on the farm cannot always be most satisfactorily accom- 
plished by the use of wood finishes already described. Wooden 
fence posts, bridge and trestle supports, piles or posts used to 
support roofs for grain and hay stacks, timbers used in silos, 
wooden shingles for roofs, etc., are neither stained nor painted 



WOOD-FINISHING AND PAINTING 101 

as a rule; they are frequently left unprotected. Moisture, 
air and temperature are natural weather elements which per- 
mit the development of fungus growths which cause rot and 
decay. All wooden structures exposed to the weather should, 
therefore, be protected. 

Toxic mineral salts or coal-tar creosote oil is used to protect 
outside woodwork which it is not desirable to decorate as the 
common stains and paints do. Coal-tar creosote oil eradicates 
fungus organisms or suspends their destructive growth. It is 
insoluble and, therefore, is impervious to moisture. Present 
practical results of treating wood with it have justified its use. 

The two general methods of treatment are known as the 
pressure processes and the non-pressure processes. The for- 
mer are used extensively by large corporations, and the latter 
by small consumers, in which class the farmer would be 
placed. Of the non-pressure processes, there are two, viz., 
the open-tank system and the brush method. 

88. The Brush Method is the one which the conditions 
of the average farm make entirely possible. It consists of 
painting refined coal-tar creosote oil, heated to approxi- 
mately 150 degrees F., on the wood in the same manner as is 
done with paint, or pouring the heated creosote over the lum- 
ber, catching the drippings in pans or basins, or applying the 
heated creosote with a mop instead of a brush. It is current 
opinion that in order to make effective the use of coal-tar cre- 
osote oil, it must be applied under pressure; nevertheless, the 
fact remains that the brush method of surface treatment re- 
sults in a most surprising increase in the life of the material 
treated, and in a most satisfactory reduction in the annual 
cost of maintenance of structure. 



102 WOODWORKING 

Two or three coats of coal-tar creosote oil are necessary, 
and all surfaces exposed or in contact with moisture-collecting 
materials, such as concrete, should be covered. Particular 
attention is directed to the covering of surfaces of joints, such 
as the sides of mortises and tenons, etc. 

89. The Open-Tank Process, while not feasible under 
ordinary farm conditions, is here briefly described, that it 
may be used where conditions permit. It consists of alter- 
nate hot-and-cold treatments of wood with refined coal-tar 
creosote oil by immersion and continuous soaking in open 
tanks without artificial pressure, requiring no mechanical ap- 
paratus other than tanks, hoist (in some cases), and means of 
heating the oil. 

The procedure is as follows: Season the lumber suffi- 
ciently to expel any excess of moisture. When cut for sizes, 
construction, etc. — that is, when completely framed — im- 
merse lumber in a bath of coal-tar creosote oil maintained at a 
temperature of from 150 to 210 degrees F. for a period deter- 
mined as follows: For close-grained wood (naturally resist- 
ant to impregnation), one hour in the hot and one hour in the 
cold, or cooling, bath for each inch of the largest cross-section. 
For species more susceptible to treatment, one-quarter of an 
hour for each inch of the largest cross-section, and milled lum- 
ber from ten to thirty minutes in each bath ; or, if the stock is 
in the form of boards, an immersion of a few minutes is suffi- 
cient. Frequently, heavy-milled stock is not subjected to 
the cold-bath treatment, but allowed to remain in the hot 
bath after the source of heat is removed and while the oil 
cools. On the other hand, boards are not subjected even to a 



WOOD-FINISHING AND PAINTING 103 

''cooling" bath as suggested by the use of the word immersion 
above. 

A project in creosoting may be selected from the buildings 
or structures already erected or to be erected. In some cases, 
the possibility of creosoting is suggested in the instruction 
given for woodworking projects. 

90. Shellac is a gum preparation prepared from the secre- 
tion of the lac bug. It is procurable in the market in dry 
flakes, and is dissolved in alcohol. The consistency for satis- 
factory use should be that of thin syrup. It is applied with a 
brush, which should be of good quality. Shellac evaporates 
rapidly; hence, unusual precaution is necessary in applying it 
to avoid streaking the surface. Long, single strokes with a 
well-filled brush will produce the best results. The brush 
should not make a second stroke over the same surface until 
the first coat of material is dry. 

A dry shellacked surface may be sandpapered and again 
shellacked. By repeated coats and careful sandings, a very 
smooth and highly-polished surface may be secured which can 
be improved by a final light rubbing with a piece of felt or bur- 
lap wrapped over a piece of cork or wood, and first dipped in a 
shallow dish of rubbing oil, and then into pumice stone. 

91. Varnish acts very similarly to shellac. It is the cus- 
tomary finishing material for highly-polished woodwork. It 
is applied and treated the same as shellac, but dries much 
slower. 

92. Wood-Filler is used to fill the pores of the grain of 
wood. When shellac or varnish is used, both as a filler and as 
a finish, many coats are required before the grain is filled and 
a finishing surface is built up. Wood-filler is, therefore, used 



104 WOODWORKING 

to fill holes and level up the surface for the finishing material, 
which, ordinarily, is varnish. 

Wood-filler is silex mixed with linseed oil, japan and tur- 
pentine. It should be thinned with turpentine or benzine to the 
consistency of paste and applied by means of a brush. When 
it begins to ''gray," a sign of its drying, it should be rubbed 
across the grain with a handful of excelsior, shavings or waste. 
Before applying shellac, varnish or other finishing material, 
the filler should dry at least forty-eight hours. Colored fillers 
are common to produce particular color effects. The white 
filler may be mixed with dry pigment colors to secure the color 
desired. In case wood is both stained and filled, the stain 
should be used first. 

93. Paint is made from white lead and linseed oil. It 
may be secured in the market prepared ready for use after 
being thoroly stirred. It may be made by mixing white lead 
and linseed oil with a coloring material. The surface of wood 
to be covered with paint should be clean and smooth . Paint 
is applied with a brush with the grain of the wood. The 
brush should be run back and forth over the same surface sev- 
eral times to work the paint into the grain of the wood. Two 
or three coats are usually necessary to cover the surface prop- 
erly. Each coat may be sanded carefully when dry before 
the succeeding coat is applied. Unless a paint has consider- 
able drier in it, or is a cheap substitute for white lead and oil, 
it needs at least three or four days to dry before it can be 
smoothed with sandpaper, or a second coat of paint can be 
applied. 

The projects in wood-finishing and painting should be 
worked in approximately the order given in the ''Classifica- 



WOOD-FINISHING AND PAINTING 105 

tion of Wood Finishes" in Sec. 82. The projects may be 
those given in the several groups under ''Woodworking." 
Upon the completion of a woodworking project, the proper 
finish may be applied, or all woodworking projects may 
first be completed and then finished. In this case, there 
will be an advantage in concentrating attention upon the 
work, both of using woodworking tools and of applying 
wood-finishing materials. 

Paint is regarded as easier to apply than shellac or varnish ; 
hence, the project in painting may well precede that in shel- 
lacking or varnishing. 

Always keep a ''full" brush of finishing material; that is, 
have the lower half of the bristles full of the finishing material, 
but do not allow the upper part of the brush to be covered. 
As one removes the brush from the material, it should be 
drawn upward against the edge of the receptacle on each side, 
that not too much material may be left in the brush, and also 
that the upper part of the bristles shall be free from material 
and the brush kept clean. 

Brushes when not in use should be kept hanging in the ma- 
terial in which they are used so that the ends of the bristles 
will be clear of the bottom of the receptacle. Receptacles 
should be covered to prevent accumulation of dust and dirt. 
Any wide-necked bottle or fruit jar may be used as a recep- 
tacle for brushes, the stopper being made of wood. 

The projects given in the woodworking section of this book 
suggest the finish which each may be given. It is suggested 
that the finishing of these projects in the order presented be 
regarded as the desirable wood-finishing projects to secure the 
necessary knowledge and practice in this subject. 



CHAPTER X 
Glazing and Screening 

94. Definition. Glazing consists of cutting and setting 
glass in frames. The chief use of this art is in cutting, tack- 
ing and puttying panes of glass in window sash, hot-bed 
frames, etc. 

95. Precautions. Window glass may be secured in 
single- or double-strength thicknesses. Double-strength 
glass is thicker and stronger than single-strength. Glass also 
is manufactured in a variety of qualities. That known as 
common is used for ordinary purposes. Whatever the 
strength or quality, sheet glass should be handled with care, 
both to prevent breaking it and to provide against being cut 
by it. It should be grasped by thumb and fingers of both 
hands, each taking hold of one of opposite edges. When 
working upon a pane of glass, it should be laid flat on a plain 
wood surface, such as the top of a bench or table. 

96. Cutting Glass. Clean off a flat wooden surf ace and 
lay the glass on it, preferably by sliding the glass upon the sur- 
face rather than placing it upon the surface from above. If 
an irregular piece of glass is to be used, place a straight-edge, 
preferably of wood, but the edge of a carpenter's square may 
be used, near one edge and run a glass cutter across the glass 
and against the edge of the straight-edge with one firm stroke, 
using moderate pressure. If the glass cutter is sharp and the 
single operation is done carefully, a cut will appear at all 
points on the glass where the cutter has run. Slide the glass 

106 



GLAZING AND SCREENING 107 

into a position so that the waste stock projects over the edge 
of the wooden surface, table or bench top, on which it is 
placed, and so that the line cut in the glass is directly above 
this edge. With the left hand placed flat on the surface of the 
glass which is on the table, and with the thumb and fingers of 
the right hand grasping the edge of the glass projecting over 
the edge of the table, gently press downward with the right 
hand. 

The glass should crack or make a clean break on the line 
made with the glass cutter, thus giving one edge of the piece 
of glass desired. 

Place one leg of carpenter's square against this edge and the 
other in a position to secure an adjacent edge of the piece of 
glass being prepared. Repeat the operation of cutting and 
breaking off the waste. 

In a similar manner, secure the opposite edges.- First, 
measure carefully for the desired width or length at two 
points near each end of an edge already formed, and mark in 
each measurement by a short line — 1/4'' is sufficient — made 
with the glass cutter. Connect these points by the edge of 
the blade of a carpenter's square or wooden straight-edge 
against which the glass cutter is run as before. 

97. Setting a Pane of Glass in a New Frame. Place 
the pane of glass in the frame and very gently fasten it in posi- 
tion with three-cornered pieces of tin (glazier's points) used by 
glaziers, which may be secured when purchasing putty. Lay 
a triangular piece of tin flat on the glass as it rests in the frame 
on a bench or table top. With a finger or thumb, press one 
corner of this tin into the frame near a corner of the pane of 
glass. With the end of the putty -knife blade resting 



108 WOODWORKING 

on the pane of glass as the knife is held in the right hand, or 
with a square-edged chisel, very carefully drive the point about 
3/16'' into the wood by letting the edge of the putty-knife or 
chisel blade gently strike the point three or four times. 

Likewise, insert other points, locating them so as to have 
one come near the corner of the frame on each edge of the 
pane, and others placed to make the distance between con- 
secutive tins about 8" or 10''. In case of a small pane, at 
least one point should be placed near the middle of each edge 
of the pane. 

If a pane is being set in a vertical frame, as in a window 
sash in a window frame, care must be taken to hold it firmly 
in position with the left hand while the right hand is used to 
drive the points into the frame. Care must always be taken 
to have the pane well seated; that is, firmly resting against 
the frame on which the flat surface of the pane rests. 

98. Applying the Putty. In order to seal the pane in 
the frame, making the joint waterproof, putty is pressed into 
the corner between the pane and the frame. Putty as it 
comes from the stock receptacle, may need to be mixed with a 
little boiled linseed oil to soften it. The oil should be mixed 
thoroly with the putty. Unless the putty is quite dry, the oil 
need not be added to it, as kneading it in the hands will make 
it soft. 

In applying putty, one should practice the following 
method: (1) After having beaten and kneaded the putty 
to an even consistency, cut off a small amount and form it 
roughly into the shape of a ball. (2) Put this putty into the 
palm of the left hand and hold the putty knife in the right. 
Set the frame to be puttied on an easel or on some similar de- 



GLAZING AND SCREENING 109 

vice so that the glass slants away from the operator. (3) 
Now, with the left hand preceding the right hand, and with 
the putty knife in position against the glass, feed the putty 
with the thumb and the first two fingers of the left hand from 
its position in the palm of the hand and under the corner of 
the putty knife. Move both hands slowly from right to left, 
feeding enough putty under the knife to fill the triangular 
opening formed between the knife and the wood and the glass. 
(4) When one complete stroke is made, go back and fill in any 
imperfect spaces, and also clean off any surplus putty which 
may be left. A little practice is necessary before a perfect 
job is made with the first stroke. Care should be taken not 
to allow the putty to get smeared on the glass more than is 
necessary. The putty should not be high enough to show 
above the wood on opposite side of the glass. 

If a broken pane of glass is being replaced or the opening in 
an old frame is being filled, care must be taken to clean thoroly 
the corner into which the pane fits of all dirt, especially old 
putty. Use broken panes of glass as far as possible in re- 
glazing windows. 

The projects in glazing should consist both of replacing an 
old pane or panes of glass, and setting the glass in a new 
frame. After the putty is thoroly dry and hard, it should be 
painted with the frame in which it is set. 

99. Screening. Every farm home should be screened as 
a protection against the house fly, rightly called the typhoid 
fly. Screens for doors and windows of standard sizes can be 
bought in stock from most lumber dealers. One who is handy 
with tools can easily construct screens. 



no WOODWORKING 

During the winter months, the screens should be removed 
from the windows and doors and stored away in a dry place. 
During spare time, they should be cleaned and painted. Paint 
especially prepared for this purpose is obtainable at most 
paint stores. Painting the screens keeps them from rusting 
and will increase their life many years. 



PART II 

Cement and Concrete 

chapter xi 

History of Cement 

100. Preliminary. The fact that concrete is now being 
used so universally, both on the farm and in the city, makes 
it desirable, if not necessary, that every one should study 
its possibilities and learn at least the first principles of cor- 
rect concrete construction. There are too many poor jobs 
of concrete work, the failure of. which is due to lack of knowl- 
edge on the part of the man doing the work. Concrete, 
when properly made, has too many good qualities to be 
condemned merely because of lack of information and judg- 
ment on the part of the man who uses it. 

The main reasons concrete is being used to such a great ex- 
tent are: 

a) It is permanent. 

h) It is more nearly fireproof than any other building 
material. 

c) It is rat-proof. 

d) It is attractive. 

e) It is sanitary. 

f) With the aid of steel, it can be used for most any 

purpose in building. 

g) It can be used with success by the average farmer 

with less special training than is required with 
other available materials. 
h) It is economical. 

Ill 



112 CEMENT AND CONCRETE 

101. Pre-historic Uses of Concrete. Altho we now 
find concrete being used in nearly all types of construction 
work, it is only of recent years that the cement industry has 
been developed. Some form of cement was used thousands 
of years ago. The ruins of Babylon and Nineveh show traces 
of it, as does the Pantheon of Rome. It is said that the pre- 
historic people of America — the Aztecs and Toltecs — used a 
cement mortar that has been so durable that the mortar 
joints are projecting where the adjacent stones have been 
worn away by the weathering action during the ages. 

There is little evidence of the use of cement during the in- 
tervening period from three or four thousand years ago up to 
the beginning of the nineteenth century. During this period, 
the art of making cement seems to have been lost and the 
builders of the Middle Ages had to resort to the use of lime 
and silt mortars, which were not very durable, as evidenced 
by the ruins of this age. 

102. Re-discovery of Cement. The re-discovery of the 
method of manufacture of hydraulic cement, a cement that 
will set or harden under water, was made by John Smeaton, 
an English engineer, in 1756. He discovered that limestone 
containing clay, when burned and then ground until very fine, 
produced a material which would not only set under water, 
but also resist the action of water. This we call natural ce- 
ment. The manufacture of this natural cement on a com- 
mercial basis is credited to Joseph Parker, who established a 
factory in 1796 and called his product Roman Cement. Other 
factories were established in Europe about the same time. 

103. Natural Cement in America. In 1818, Canvass 
White established a factory at Fayetteville, New York, for 



HISTORY OF CEMENT 113 

manufacturing natural cement on a commercial basis. Other 
plants sprang up along the canals in New York state ; also in 
Ohio, and a plant was established near Louisville, Kentucky. 
The output for a number of years was very small — about 25,- 
000 barrels per year. After the Civil War, during the recon- 
struction period, an impetus was given to the cement indus- 
try, and the production of natural cement reached its maxi- 
mum in 1899, when 10,000,000 barrels were produced. Since 
then, the production of cement from natural stone as found 
in the quarries has been on the decline. At the present time 
practically all cement used in America is artificial cement, or 
Portland cement. 

104. Portland Cement. The process of making artificial 
cement, or Portland cement, was discovered by Joseph Aspdin, 
an Englishman, in 1829. The cement was given its name be- 
cause it resembles the Portland rocks near Leeds, England. 
In the United States it was first manufactured in 1870 at 
Copley, Pennsylvania. Its use has increased so rapidly that 
now the output amounts to about 100,000,000 barrels per year. 
Portland cement manufacturing plants can now be found 
thruout the country. Wherever there is an abundance of 
suitable limestone and shale, or clay, and a supply of fuel and 
labor, a cement plant can be successfully operated . Portland 
cement is different from natural cement, in that the materials 
of which it is made are carefully proportioned and artificially 
mixed. The essential components of Portland cement are 
silica, aluminum and lime, with small quantities of other ma- 
terials. The silica and aluminum are in the clay. The ma- 
terial is first ground, then mixed in proportion of three parts 
of limestone to one of clay; it is then burned to a clinker and 



114 CEMENT AND CONCRETE 

re-ground to proper fineness. While there are a great many 
brands of Portland cement on the market, the composition 
is practically constant and the buyer can feel safe in buying 
any recognized brand. 



CHAPTER XII 
Properties and Uses of Cement 

105. Properties. The properties of cement with which 
every builder is most concerned are those of strength and per- 
manence. The requirements ordinarily mentioned are proper 
fineness, proper setting qualities, purity, strength in tension, 
and soundness. A cement that is fresh, free from lumps, 
properly packed and stored, is nearly always first-class. 

106. Mortar. Mortar is a mixture of (1) cement or hy- 
drated lime, or both, (2) sand, and (3) water. It is a plastic 
mass, the water content being varied with its use. Lime 
mortars are little used at present because they set slowly, will 
not set under water, are not very strong, and will deteriorate, 
due to weathering action. A small amount of lime, 10 to 20 
per cent, is usually added to cement mortar to make it work 
well with a trowel and to make it more adhesive. 

107. Deiinition of Concrete. Concrete is often defined 
as an artificial stone. It is made by mixing cement with sand 
and gravel, or broken stone, and water; or, in other words, it 
is a mixture of (1) cement, (2) a fine aggregate, (3) a coarse ag- 
gregate, and (4) water. The addition of water causes the ce- 
ment to undergo chemical changes forming new compounds 
that develop the property of crystallizing into a solid mass. 
The strength and durability of plain concrete (that is, con- 
crete without reinforcing) varies with: 

a) The quality and amount of cement used. 
h) The kind, size and strength of aggregate. 
c) Correctness of proportioning. 

115 



116 



CEMENT AND CONCRETE 



d) Method and thoroness of mixing. 

e) The amount of water. 

f) Method and care of placing. 

g) Method of curing. 
h) Age. 

108. Aggregates. As ordinarily employed, the term ag- 





FiG. 137. Gravel bank. 

gregates includes not only gravel or stone — the coarse mate- 
rial used — but also the sand, or fine material, which is used 
with the cement to form either mortar or concrete. Fine ag- 
gregate is defined as any suitable material that will pass a No. 
4 sieve or screen (having four meshes to the linear inch), and 



PROPERTIES AND USES OF CEMENT 117 

includes sand, stone screenings, crushed slag, etc. By coarse 
aggregate is meant any suitable material, such as crushed 
stone or gravel, that is retained on a No. 4 sieve. The maxi- 
mum size of coarse aggregate depends on the class of structure 
for which the concrete is to be used. 

The fact that the aggregates may seem to be of good quality 
and yet prove totally unsuitable (Fig. 137), shows that study 
and careful tests are necessary if the best results are to be ob- 
tained. The idea that the strength of concrete depends en- 
tirely upon the cement, and that only a superficial examina- 
tion of aggregates is necessary, is altogether too prevalent. 
The man who recognizes the quality of his aggregates, who 
grades them properly, sees that they are washed if necessary, 
then mixes them in proportions determined by thoro testing, 
study or actual experience, is the one who will make the best 
concrete. 

In the selection and use of sand, more precaution is neces- 
sary than for the coarser aggregate, due to the physical con- 
dition of sand and a wider variation in properties. A knowl- 
edge of these properties and of the method of analysis to de- 
termine the suitability of sand for use in mortar and concrete, 
may easily be applied to an analysis of the coarse aggregate. 

109. Presence of Rotten or Soft Pebbles in the Gravel. 

In many cases, gravel from the old glaciers has been used, 
which have been so badly weathered that the pebbles can be 
crushed between the fingers. In other cases, small lumps of 
shale or sandstone are mistaken for gravel. These lumps are 
not strong at best, and, under the action of water, especially 
alternate wetting and drying, they go to pieces. No pebbles 
which can be scratched with a thumb nail, or crushed in the 



118 CEMENT AND CONCRETE 

fingers, are suitable for concrete. If there are only a few of 
them in gravel which is otherwise good, they will not seriously 
weaken the concrete, but it is a good deal better not to use 
them at all, since a hard concrete cannot be made from soft 
materials. 

110. Presence of Dirt in the Aggregate. Most gravels 
and sands contain some clay, but clay in amounts up to three 
per cent by weight is not especially harmful. More than 
three per cent is harmful. Where gravels contain organic 
matter of any kind, the concrete made from them is very 
likely to go to pieces, and they should not be used unless the 
dirt can be washed out. Clay may also be removed by wash- 
ing. To test for amount of dirt, shake up four inches of sand 
or gravel in a quart fruit jar, three-fourths full of water, for 
four or five minutes. Then let it stand three hours. If there 
is more than 1/2'' of dirt on top of the material, it is too dirty 
to use without washing. 

111. Vegetable Matter in Sand. A coating of vege- 
table matter on sand grains appears not only to prevent the 
cement from adhering, but to affect it chemically. Fre- 
quently, a quantity of vegetable matter so small that it can- 
not be detected by the eye, and only slightly disclosed in 
chemical tests, may prevent the mortar from reaching any 
appreciable strength, Concrete made with such sand usually 
hardens so slowly that the results are questionable and its use 
is prohibited. Other impurities, such as acids, alkalis or oils 
in the sand or mixing water, usually make trouble. 

Where limestone is used in an aggregate, it is well to see 
that the pile of limestone is thoroly wet down before using. 
This is for two purposes — (1) to remove the coating of dust 



PROPERTIES AND USES OF CEMENT 119 

which would otherwise prevent the formation of a bond be- 
tween the cement and the stone, and (2) to allow the stone to 
absorb water before the mixing process. Limestone will ab- 
sorb a great deal of moisture, and, if mixed dry, it is liable to 
take up part of the water needed in the process of setting or 
crystallizing. 



CHAPTER XIII 
Proportions and Mixtures; Handling of Concrete 

112. Proportions. The theory of proper proportions is 
to use just enough sand to fill the air spaces or voids in the 
coarse aggregate, and enough cement to fill the air spaces in 
the sand, and also to coat each particle and thus serve as a 
binder. The small contractor in actual practice rarely at- 
tempts to carry this out; in fact, he seldom accurately meas- 
ures the materials that go into the job. He uses a little ce- 
ment, some sand and gravel, and, under average conditions, 
may get fair results. It is no wonder, however, that we find 
sidewalks going to pieces, foundations of buildings cracking 
and disintegrating when the work is done in such a haphazard 
fashion. 

To make a concrete that is strong as well as economical, it 
is essential that the materials be well graded from the larger 
to the smaller-sized particles so that the voids around the 
particles are reduced to a minimum. The absolute elimina- 
tion of voids is an ideal condition which we should strive to 
obtain. However, the densest concrete is not always the 
strongest. In some cases, a rather porous mixture with a 
small amount of fine aggregate is stronger than another piece 
of concrete with a great deal of fine aggregate and a small 
amount of coarse material, although the latter mixture would 
be the denser of the two. 

113. Requirements of Good Concrete. The proper 
proportions to use, under practical conditions, will depend on 

120 



PROPORTIONS AND MIXTURES 121 

the use to which the concrete is to be put. The three proper- 
ties which are most often required are: (1) Strength, as in 
bridges, buildings, etc. ; (2) resistance to wear, as in concrete 
sidewalks and roads; (3) water-tightness, as in water tanks, 
silos, etc. The practical mixtures that are ordinarily used 
for different kinds of concrete work are as follows : 

114. Standard Mixtures. Rich mixture of 1 part ce- 
ment, 1-1/2 parts sand, and 3 parts broken stone, or gravel, 
commonly called a 1 : 1-1/2 : 3 mixture, is used for columns 
of reinforced concrete buildings, for thin water-tight walls 
where very dense, strong concrete is required, and under all 
similar conditions. 

A good, standard mixture of 1 part cement, 2 parts sand, 
and 4 parts broken stone, commonly called 1:2:4 mixture, 
is used for reinforced concrete work of all kinds, for water 
tanks, thin walls, etc. 

Medium mixture of 1 part cement, 2-1/2 pares sand, and 5 
parts broken stone, commonly called 1 : 2-1/2 : 5 mixture, is 
used for all plain concrete, that is, concrete without rein- 
forcing — for foundations, walls, floors, etc. When the walls 
are to be water-tight, a 1 : 2 : 4 miixture should be used in- 
stead. 

Lean mixture of 1 part cement, 3 parts ot sand, and 6 parts 
broken stone, commonly called 1:3:6 mixture, is used for 
very heavy mass concrete where the loads are wholly com- 
pressive. Still leaner mixtures are sometimes used for very 
heavy foundations and abutments, but are not recommended 
for general use. 

115. Common Errors in Proportioning Concrete. A 
rather common error that is made by the inexperienced con- 



122 CEMENT AND CONCRETE 

Crete worker is to assume that when mixing one cubic foot of 
cement, two cubic feet of sand, and four cubic feet of gravel, 
he will secure seven cubic feet of concrete. This is an entirely 
erroneous idea, as the sand would simply fill the voids in the 
coarse material, and the cement would fill the voids in the 
sand and coat the particles of sand and gravel or stone. Since 
the amount of cement and sand used is more than enough to 
fill the voids in the gravel, the resulting concrete will be 
slightly more than four cubic feet, about 4.25 under average 
conditions. The same error is often made when unscreened, 
bank-run materials are used. In attempting to secure the 
equivalent of a 1 : 2 : 4 mixture, the contractor will use one 
part of cement to six parts of bank-run material, when, in 
reality, he should use only about 4-1/4 cubic feet of bank-run 
material to one cubic foot of cement to get the equivalent of a 
1:2:4 mixture. This is assuming that the bank-run mate- 
rial is of the correct proportion of one part of fine aggregate to 
two parts of coarse aggregate, which should be accurately de- 
termined by testing. The only safe method of using bank- 
run materials is to screen them before using. Then when the 
materials are used, the proportions can be definitely secured. 

116. Determining Quantities for a Job. In deter- 
mining the quantities of material for a job, one must remem- 
ber that the volume of concrete is only a little greater than 
the volume of coarse aggregate ; in fact, this is often taken as a 
basis for estimate of materials needed. For example, sup- 
pose it is required to make 54 cubic feet of concrete of a 1 : 2 : 
4 mixture. It is assumed that 54 cubic feet of coarse aggregate, 
27 cubic feet of sand, and 13-1/2 cubic feet, or 13-1/2 sacks 
of cement are required. Another rule which may be used 



PROPORTIONS AND MIXTURES 123 

for all standard proportions is to take the sum of the propor- 
tions and divide into the number 11: the quotient will be the 
number of barrels of cement required to make one cubic yard 

of concrete of the particular proportion. For example, ^^ 

1+2+4 

= 1-4/7 barrels of cement, or 6-2/7 sacks (4 sacks to a barrel; 
for one cubic yard of concrete. Since 54 cubic feet, or 2 cubic 
yards, of concrete is required in the above job, it will take 
2 X 6-2/7, or 12-4/7 sacks of cement, 25-1/7 cubic feet of sand, 
and 50-2/7 cubic feet of coarse aggregate. For a small job, 
the first method may be used, but with the larger job, the 
latter method, which is more accurate, should be adopted. 

117. Requirements of Good Mixing. The require- 
ments of good mixing are: (1) That every particle of sand and 
stone is coated with cement paste, (2) that the sand and stone 
are evenly distributed through the mass, and (3) that the 
whole mixture is of a uniform consistency. A poorly-mixed 
concrete may be known by its lack of uniformity in color and 
the separation of fine and coarse material. It is just as im- 
portant to have materials thoroly and carefully mixed as to 
have them properly proportioned. It is considered so impor- 
tant by well-informed concrete contractors, that they require 
the materials to be mixed for a definite period of time, if 
mixed by machine method, or turned a definite number of 
times if mixed by hand. Up to a certain limit, it has been 
found that the strength of the concrete is directly propor- 
tional to the length of time it has been kept in the mixer. 
(In the specifications for the construction of some concrete 
work, the time of mixing is definitely stated.) 

118. Hand-Mixing. A water-tight platform is the first 
requirement for successful hand-mixing. In mixing by hand, 



124 



CEMENT AND CONCRETE 



there is always a tendency to mix in small units, which is 
sometimes a mistaken idea. It is usually best to mix at least 
enough so that one sack of cement or one cubic foot can be 
taken as a unit because, if the sack is emptied and only a 
part of a sack is taken, the cement will fluff up and form 
more than one cubic foot. 

119. Procedure in Hand- Mixing. In the actual process 
of mixing, it is usually best to spread the sand on the mixing 




Fig. 138. Spreading cement on sand. 

board, and on top of this spread the sack of cement (Fig. 
138); then two men using square-pointed shovels turn this 
sand and cement over several times until the streaks of color 
are merged into a uniform shade throughout the entire mass. 
The coarse aggregate is then added (Fig. 138-a), and during 
the first turning, water is added by means of a hose or from a 
bucket (Fig. 139). Care must be observed to prevent wash- 
ing the cement out of the mass. It is best to turn the mate- 
rials several times (Fig. 139-a), adding a small amount of water 



PROPORTIONS AND MIXTURES 



12i 




Fig. 138-a. Measuring coarse aggregate. 




Fig. 139. Adding water to mixture. 



126 



CEMENT AND CONCRETE 



each time until it reaches the proper consistency. The only 
objection to the hand method of mixing is that a great deal 
of labor is involved, and this, in some cases, reduces the qual- 
ity of the concrete because of the fact that the materials are 
not mixed as thoroly as when mixed in a mixing machine. 




Fig. 139-a. Turning the mixture. 




Fig. 140. Batch mixer. 
120. Machine-Mixing. There are two types of ma- 
chine mixers in use — the batch mixer (Figs. 140 and 140-a) and 
the continuous mixer. The latter type is not as satisfactory 
as the batch mixer and is seldom used except on small jobs. 



PROPORTIONS AND MIXTURES 127 

Better results can be obtained with the batch mixer, because a 
definite quantity of materials is added and thoroly mixed be- 
fore any concrete is discharged from the mixer. By allowing the 
materials to remain in the mixer for a definite period of time, 
they are more completely mixed, and all parts are of uniform 
proportion. In the continuous mixer, the dry materials are 
fed automatically from a hopper into a mixing trough where 
water is added and where the entire mass is mixed and carried 
along by blades to the discharge end, where the concrete is 
discharged continuously^ 




Fig. 140-a. Another batch mixer. 

121. Consistency of Mixtures. The amount of water 
used in making concrete will depend on the use for which the 
concrete is intended. There are three consistencies ordi- 
narily referred to in discussing concrete. They are generally 
called the ''dry," ''quaky" and 'Vet" mixtures. The dry 
mixture is of about the consistency of damp earth and is used 
where the concrete is tamped into place. The quaky mixture 
is so named because it is wet enough to quake when it is 
tamped. It is used in molded products requiring reinforcing, 
such as fence posts, beams, columns, etc. It is also used in 
sidewalks, floors and foundations. The wet mixture contains 



128 CEMENT AND CONCRETE 

enough water to permit its flowing from the shovel or convey- 
ors from elevators to various points in the construction of 
large buildings. There is a tendency on the part of some 
contractors to make the mixture very wet so as to make it 
flow more easily. This will cause the separation of the coarse 
materials from the finer and reduce the quality of the concrete. 
One main point to remember in connection with the proper 
consistency is that the materials must not be too dry nor too 
wet; either condition will cause the separation of the coarse 
material from the mortar. 

122. Placing of Concrete. No time should elapse be- 
tween the ''mixing'* and the ''placing.'* One's judgment 
must be used in placing; the method adopted will depend on 
the particular job. The essential feature in placing is to pre- 
vent the separation of the stone from the mortar. 

123. Three Methods of Placing Concrete. 

1) A dry mixture of concrete is placed by thoro tamping or 
by pressure. The density and the final strength of a dry mix- 
ture will depend on the extent of tamping. This method of 
placing concrete is used in making concrete products that are 
not reinforced, such as blocks, bricks and jardinieres. The 
material must be carefully tamped as the mold is being filled, 
either by hand or by power machines. 

2) A quaky mixture can be placed by agitation or slight 
tamping. This method is used in making reinforced prod- 
ucts, such as posts, large tile and tanks; also for slab work, 
such as floors and sidewalks. Some forms are designed so 
they can be vibrated to settle the concrete into place. 

3) A wet mixture is simply deposited into place, and re- 
quires no tamping. A spade or board should be used for 



PROPORTIONS AND MIXTURES 



129 



working large stones back from the forms and leveling the 
surface so that no large stones are left uncovered (Fig. 141). 
This mixture and method of placing is used in nearly all re- 
inforced structures where the reinforcing is put in place be- 
fore the concrete is poured. For large structures, special ap- 
paratus is used for elevating the material. 




Fig. 141. Working stones away from surface. 

124. Handling Concrete. There are three common 
ways of conveying the mixture: 

a) It may be shoveled off the board directly into the 

work. 
6) It may be shoveled into wheelbarrows and wheeled 
to position and dumped. 



130 



CEMENT AND CONCRETE 



c) It may be elevated by buckets and hoisting appa- 
ratus. 
Where the concrete is mixed by hand, it is usually trans- 
ported by wheelbarrow (Fig. 142). For machine-mixed con- 
crete where the work is of some magnitude, some flexible 




Fig. 142. Moving concrete with wheelbarrow. 

method of handling it is best, usually a tower with elevating 
equipment. Derricks and bucket elevators are also used. 
The one objection to the use of tower and chutes is the tend- 
ency, in order to secure easy flow, to use too much water, 
causing a separation of the fine and coarse aggregate. 



CHAPTER XIV 
Forms for Concrete; Curing Concrete 

125. Necessity of Forms. The plasticity of concrete, 
and the readiness with which the material can be adapted to 
all shapes and sizes of construction, which are two of the chief 
merits of the material, make necessary the use of forms in 
connection with it. 

126. Importance of Form Construction. The design 
and construction of forms is one of the most serious problems 
of concrete work. As a rule, on small work, the expense of 
the forms is from one-fourth to one-half of the total cost of 
the work in place. Many people do not appreciate this fact 
and neglect the forms with the result that the finished work is 
of poor quality, or else the forms have cost too much. The 
shape, dimensions and finish of the work all depend on the 
forms, and it is not possible to do good concrete work with- 
out good forms.- 

127. Earth Forms. In foundation walls, where care has 
been observed in excavation and the earth stands up prop- 
erly, it can be used. Earth can be used also in making well 
tops, etc., where the work can be fashioned out in the clay. 
The earth must be wet down thoroly to keep it from absorb- 
ing too much moisture from the concrete. A combination of 
wood and clay can be used. Molds of wet sand are used in 
ornamental work. Frequently, colored sands are used for 
this purpose, providing both the finished surface and color to 
the concrete. 

131 



132 CEMENT AND CONCRETE 

128. Cast, Wrought or Galvanized Iron Forms. These 
are used where a smooth surface is desired without further 
treatment after removal of forms. In construction work, 
where the same type of form is used a great number of 
times, it is economy to have a material which will not go to 
pieces, warp, swell and crack, even tho the first cost may be 




Fig. 143. Commercial post mold. 

higher. Steel forms, if strongly built, will meet these condi- 
tions. Forms made of iron are more easily cleaned, and can 
be used a great number of times. Rusty iron is not good for 
forms; the concrete will stick badly. There are steel forms 
on the market for concrete posts (Fig. 143), water tanks, silos, 
etc. 

129. Wood Forms. Wood forms are most common, and 
are used most for concrete work on the farm. The chief rea- 
son for this is that lumber can be obtained easily in small 
quantities, and there is always a certain amount of old lumber 
around every farm. 

130. Requirements of a Good Form. 

o) One that can be used a number of times. 

b) One that is strong so it will not bulge or crack. 

c) One that is tight and free from leaks. 



FORMS FOR CONCRETE; CURING CONCRETE 133 

d) One that is true and properly aligned. 

e) One that is made of good material suited to its use. 
Soft woods are better than hard because they (a) are cheaper, 

(6) do not crack so badly, (c) are an easier material to work. 
Spruce and yellow pine make good forms; the boards used 
should be sound and free from knot holes. Partly green lum- 
ber is better than either green or kiln-dried, because it will 
swell just enough to make tight joints without buckling. 
Dressed lumber has several advantages over undressed: (a) 
It makes truer work, (b) tighter joints, (c) smoother surfaces, 
{d) forms are easier removed, and (e) forms are easier cleaned. 

131. Use of Old Lumber for Forms. Where old lum- 
ber is to be used, it should be sorted and listed so that new 
lumber can be ordered of proper sizes that will work in best. 
Care must be observed in the use of old lumber to see that it 
is strong enough to support the load put on it by the con- 
crete. A great deal of expense can be avoided by taking ad- 
vantage of old lumber. 

132. Sharp Corners in Forms. Sharp corners should 
be avoided as much as possible in concrete work. It is best 
to bevel the corners by setting strips in the forms, especially 
on inside angles. This gives both greater strength and better 
finish to the work. 

133. Removing Forms; Care of Forms. Forms should 
not be removed until the concrete is thoroly set. The time of 
setting varies with the wetness of the mixture, and with the 
weather. Concrete sets much faster in warm, dry weather 
than in cold or damp weather. On foundation walls or simi- 
lar work, where the concrete is used in direct compression, the 
forms may be removed in a few days. Under floors or beams, 



134 CEMENT AND CONCRETE 

which are subjected to bending, the forms should be left two 
weeks or longer. 

Care of Forms: 

Forms for concrete posts, etc., should be oiled with a heavy 
oil before they are used. As soon as they are removed, they 
should be thoroly cleaned with a stiff wire brush. Oiling 
metal forms or molds after using is better practice than to 
wait, as a coat of oil prevents rust. In removing wooden 
forms, care must be observed to avoid splitting boards. All 
boards should be cleaned, the nails pulled, and boards 
stacked to prevent warping. 

Curing Concrete: 

Proper curing of concrete is very essential to success. It 
must not be allowed to dry out too rapidly. If freshly made 
and exposed to the intense heat of the summer's sun, it must 
be protected. The drying out not on^y produces check 
cracks, but hinders the setting action of the concrete, making 
it weak. Floors and walks that are protected and kept moist 
for some days will harden into a very dense and almost dust- 
less material, while those not adequately protected will wear 
rapidly and be dusty. 



CHAPTER XV 
Reinforcing Concrete; Cement- Working Tools 

134. The Principle of Reinforcing. Plain concrete is 
strong in compression, but will not resist a very great load 
when in tension. Steel is a material that has a great tensile 
strength, as well as compressive strength, so, by combining 
the two, we have a resultant material which is strong in both 
tension and compression, and can be adapted to most any 
use. 

The design of reinforced concrete structures is quite tech- 
nical and has no place in a text of this character. For simple 
types of construction, such as reinforcing for a silo, water 
tank, retaining wall, fence posts and well tops, the student 
can refer to tables in hand-books, or use his best judgment, 
bearing in mind that the amount of reinforcing will vary from 
3/4 to 1-1/2 per cent of the cross-section of the member being 
reinforced. 

135. Compression and Tension in Beams. A con- 
sideration of the basic principles underlying simple reinforced 
concrete construction may be of interest. Consider a simple 
beam of uniform cross-section like a 2'' x 4'', supported at each 
end, with a load applied at the center (Fig. 144). It will be 
found that the upper part of the beam will be in compression, 
or tending to crush together, and the lower part will be tearing 
apart, or in tension. It will be noted that there is a plane 
perpendicular to the force applied and cutting the beam in 
half where there is neither tension nor compression. This is 
called the neutral plane or neutral axis. 

Now, since the lower part of the beam is in tension, and 

135 



136 



CEMENT AND CONCRETE 



since concrete is weak in tension, it is apparent that to make 
the lower part of the beam as strong as the upper part, we 
must imbed some material in the beam that is high in tensile 
No ^ einforcing 
Broke at 140* 



l^etnforan^ in Top 
Broke-'af 145"^ 




?TT 



Keinibrcin^ in Middle 
Broke at 290^ 




l^etoforcing in bottom 
3rokeof 8.5 J^ 




Fig. 144. Results of different placing of reinforcing. 

strength. Steel is not only high in tensile strength, but its 
co-efFicient of expansion is the same as that of concrete, so a 
strong bond between the two can be maintained. It must be 
kept in mind that the steel must be placed as far as possible 
from the neutral axis to be most effective. It must not be 
placed too near the surface of the concrete. It must be kept 
in mind, further, that in any reinforcing job, the steel must be 



REINFORCING CONCRETE; CEMENT TOOLS 137 

placed where it will be under a tensile strain. Fig. 144 shows 
the relative strength of a concrete beam with reinforcing 
placed in various positions. 

136. Kinds of Reinforcing. As to the kinds of rein- 
forcing, probably square twisted steel rods, or the deformed 
bars, are best. Round rods are sometimes used, but they 
should be carefully anchored to give the best results. Some 
engineers specify either the twisted or the deformed rods, 
since a better bond is secured between the concrete and the 
steel with this type of reinforcing. Some contractors claim 
that a small amount of rust on the reinforcing is advanta- 
geous. A very small amount of rust may be of some value in 
forming a bond between the concrete and the steel. How- 
ever, if the steel is left outside until it has become pitted with 
rust, the resultant piece of work would be weakened, as the 
bond between the steel and concrete would be a poor one. 

137. Use of Scrap Iron for Reinforcing Concrete. It 
is thought by some that scrap iron will make good reinforcing. 
It is seldom true that as good a job can be secured by using 
scrap iron, old gas pipe, etc., as by using regular reinforcing 
steel. Gas pipe that is of value as pipe is expensive rein- 
forcing material. 

138. Tools for Concrete Work. Very inexpensive tools 
are required for concrete work; in fact, few tools that are not 
found on the average farm. For special work, special tools 
will be required, which may be secured from any good hard- 
ware supply house. A panel containing many of such special 
tools is shown in Fig. 145. The tools commonly used in farm 
concrete work and such as will be needed in the following pro- 
jects are as follows: 



138 



CEMENT AND CONCRETE 




Fig. 145. Tools used in concrete work 



1, Tamper; 2, level; 3, finishing trowel; 4, shovel; 5, groover; 6, edger 
7 and 8, trowels; 9, hand float. 



REINFORCING CONCRETE; CEMENT TOOLS 139 

a) For screening aggregate — a moulder's riddle for 
small work, or a screen, as shown in Fig. 138. 

h) For washing aggregate — a trough in which dirty 
aggregate can be freed from clay. 




Fig. 145-a. Mixing concrete. Measuring boxes and other equipment. 

c) For mixing and placing — a platform, as shown in 

Fig. 142; shovel, spade, hoe, tamper, striking 
board and wheelbarrow (Figs. 142, 145 and 147). 

d) For measuring ingredients — a measuring box, as 

shown in Fig. 145-a. 

e) For finishing — trowel, edger, groover, hand float, 

etc. (Fig. 145). 

f) Water container — a barrel or, for large construc- 

tion, a water tank, to which is attached a hose. 
Tools for wood construction — carpenter's square, 
hammer, saws (rip and crosscut). 
Note: To these tools there may be added a mixer, either hand or 
power, depending upon the extent of the work to be undertaken. 



CHAPTER XVI 
Projects in Concrete Construction 

Project No, 1 

139. Study of Concrete Construction and Concrete 
Materials (Figs. 146 and 146-a). 

Requirements: To investigate as many types and classes of 
concrete work as are available and as time will permit. 




y 




Fig. 146. Defective concrete walk. 

The following are suggested: Concrete tanks — one 
circular and one rectangular — sidewalks, feeding floor, 
foundation wall, retaining wall, fence posts, roads, tile, 
and block. These should be studied with the idea of 
noting the results obtained by use of poor materials 
and poor workmanship, and the use of good materials 
and careful workmanship, and also to determine 

140 



PROJECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 141 

quantity of material needed for certain jobs. Make a 
written report on results obtained. 

Tools Needed: Rule for taking dimensions. 

Preliminary Instruction: Carefully read the preceding para- 
graphs. Keep in mind the general principles of con- 
crete construction. Remember the requirements for 




Fig. 146-a. An attractive walk. 

well-made concrete, good aggregate, proper propor- 
tions, careful mixing and placing, and correct reinforcing. 

Working Instructions: 
a) Examine at least one of each of the different types of 

concrete work listed under requirements and report on the 

following: 

1) Generalconditionof the job. 

2) If cracks are forming, to what are they due? 

3) Where cracks have formed, note if there is a clear 

fracture, or, if the aggregate is pulled out of the 
mortar. 

4) Was the coarse aggregate worked back from the 

form when placed? 

5) Was a dry, quaky or a wet mixture used? 



142 CEMENT AND CONCRETE 

6) Does the job indicate that the forms were well 

made? 

7) If the forms were not well made, what was wrong 

with them? 

8) Why do poor foundations often cause cracks in con- 

crete walls? 

9) Examine the foundation and note if care was ob- 

served in its preparation. 

10) Is the foundation well drained ? 

11) What is the effect of poor drainage under a founda- 

tion wall? Under a sidewalk? Under a road? 

12) What precaution should be taken in constructing an 

earth-retaining wall? 

13) If cracks have formed, were they due to lack of or 

insufficient reinforcement? 

14) Where should reinforcing steel be placed in such a 

wall? Why? 

15) Why should a wet or quaky mix be used where the 

concrete is reinforced? 

16) Write a brief statement about each piece of work, 

giving your opinion as to what should be done to 
make a first-class job. 
h) Examine concrete material, note the quality, etc. 

1) Examine a sack of cement. See if it is free from 

lumps and is fresh. 

2) Note the brand of cement examined. 

3) Note the condition of the bag. 

4) Why is it important to take care of the bags and not 

allow them to get wet? 

5) Examine available sand. See if it is clean, free from 

clay, coal or other organic matter. 



PROJECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 143 

6) Test a small quantity of sand for clay by putting 

about 4" or 5" in a fruit jar, adding water and 
shaking until clay is in solution. Set aside and 
let clay settle on top of the sand. Determine the 
per cent of clay present. 

7) What per cent of clay is allowable in average con- 

crete work? 

8) Examine available gravel or broken stone. See if it 

is free from clay, organic matter or soft particles. 

9) Can you scratch the stone with your thumb nail? 

10) What would the effect be to use soft stone in making 

concrete? 

11) Is the coating of fine dust ordinarily found on lime- 

stone detrimental in making concrete? 

12) Examine some bank-run sand and gravel as in Nos. 

5 and 8. 

13) Why is it poor practice to use ordinary bank-run 

material for making concrete? 

14) Suppose it is required that a piece of concrete work 

be made of bank-run material that has 50 per cent 
as much sand as gravel, and that it is to be equi- 
valent in strength to a 1 : 2 : 4 mixture where the 
sand and gravel are graded. How much would 
be required for each sack of cement? 

c) Problems: 

Assume a 1 : 2 : 4 mixture and determine the amount of 
materials needed; also cost: 

1) To make a circular tank 6' 0'' inside diameter at the 
top and 5' 4'' diameter at the bottom, and 2^ 0" 
deep. The wall of the tank to be 4" thick at the 



144 CEMENT AND CONCRETE 

top and 8'' thick at the bottom, the bottom of tank 
to be 5" thick. 

2) To make a rectangular tank with the same capacity 
as No. 1, to have same thickness, walls and bottom, 
and to be 4' C across inside at the top. 

3) To make a sidewalk 40' long, 3' wide, and 4" thick. 



III! "'£■ 



91 HhIBP 




Fig. 147. JMaking bi^Ll.. 

4) To make six concrete fence posts. Assume 20 cents 
a post for steel. 

140. Molded Concrete (Figs. 147 and 147-a). 

Project No. 2 

Requirements: To make tile of different sizes, block, flower 
boxes, and other pieces of concrete work requiring a 
dry mixture. 

Tools Needed: Shovels, bucket, measuring box, screen, mix- 
ing platform, trowels, and suitable molds. 

Material Needed: Cement, sand and water. 

Preliminary Instructions: The principles outlined in the dis- 
cussion on selection of sand must be kept in mind. 
Only the best sand should be used. In the kind of 
work outlined in this project, a relatively dry mixture 
must be used, one about as wet as damp earth when 



PROJECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 



145 



plowed; with such a mixture the molds may be re- 
moved immediately. Good results cannot be obtained 
if the materials are either too wet or too dry. The 





FiG. 147-a. Making flower box. 

product will stand up due to the adhesiveness of the 
concrete, and it must be allowed to set thoroly before 
handling. Careful measurement of materials is an 
essential requirement of all concrete work. 
Working Instructions: 

1) Use a 1 : 3 mixture; that is, one part of cement and 
three parts of sand, for the various jobs outlined. 
Where coarse aggregate is available, the block may be 
made of a 1 : 2 : 4 mixture with a 1 : 2 face. 

2) After measuring the sand, spread it out in a thin layer 
on a water-tight platfoi'm; then spread the cement on 
top of the sand and mix together dry, continuing the 
turning until the color is uniform and without streaks. 
Water is then added slowly from a sprinkling can or by 



146 CEMENT AND CONCRETE 

a hose, the mixing being continued until all parts of 
the mass are of the same color and wetness. 

3) Carefully clean the molds and apply a thin film of oil 
after using, so they will be ready for the next job. See 
that they are absolutely clean before placing any con- 
crete. 

4) Tile, block, etc., are made by thoroly tamping or press- 
ing the concrete in the molds to be used. Any dry 
mixture must be thoroly tamped to make dense con- 
crete. 

5) Extreme care must be observed in removing the molds 
to avoid cracking the product or causing it to get out 
of true shape. Tapping the mold slightly will often 
prevent failures. 

6) After the product has set for twenty-four hours, 
sprinkle it carefully with water, repeating this fre- 
quently for ten days. It should not be used for one 
month or more. Where such products are made on a 
commercial scale, they are often cured in a steam kiln. 

7) Write a report on each product made. Give the gen- 
eral method of procedure and why. Carefully deter- 
mine cost of materials in each. 

Project No. 3 
141. Sidewalk and Floors (Figs. 148 and 148-a). 
Requirements: To prepare foundation, construct forms to 
proper grade and position, and construct sidewalk and 
floors of various kinds requiring a quaky mixture. 
Tools Needed: Shovels, buckets, measuring box, screen, mix- 
ing platform, trowels, edger, groover and float. Wood- 
working tools suitable for constructing forms. 



PROJECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 



147 




148 



CEMENT AND CONCRETE 



Materials Needed: Enough cement, sand and gravel or broken 
stone, and water to complete the job. For a 1 : 2 : 4 
mixture, 1 sack of cement, 2 cubic feet of sand and 4 
cubic feet of gravel should make 4-1/4 cubic feet of 




Fig. 148-a. Boys constructing sidewalk, 

concrete, or 13 square feet of walk or floor 4 inches 
thick. Material for forms must also be provided — 
2 X 4's with suitable stakes are very satisfactory. 
Preliminary Instructions: The general principles of proper 
proportioning, mixing and placing should be carried 
out in constructing sidewalks the same as in any other 
type of concrete construction. In work of this class, a 
quaky mixture should be adopted. A walk should 
not be made by putting down coarse material and 
pouring over it a cement-sand mortar. Because of 



PROJECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 149 

the close resemblance between other types of floor con- 
structions, such as feeding floors, barnyard pavements, 
basement floors, garage floors, etc., and concrete walks, 
only a detailed description of the construction of one 
type will be given. The location and drainage of any 
walk or floor must be considered. 
Working Instructions: 

1) In laying out a walk, the first consideration is its loca- 
tion with reference to buildings and the road. If it is 
to be located with reference to a certain building, 
either parallel or at a right angle, it should be definitely 
located by careful measurement. Stake out the posi- 
tion of the walk and draw a tight string so that the 
surface may be properly leveled to a uniform grade. 
This surface should be thoroly tamped to prevent any 
settling after the walk has been placed. 

Under certain conditions, where there is a tendency for 
water to collect under a walk, cinders or gravel may be 
used as a sub-base. Ordinarily, the concrete will be 
placed directly on the well-tamped soil. 

2) Make the forms of 2" lumber, either 4" or 5'' wide, de- 
pending on thickness to which walk will be made; 4'' is 
satisfactory for most conditions. Place the forms 
carefully to grade, and fill in with earth and tamp any 
low places before placing any concrete. Proper and 
careful alignment of the forms is the most important 
feature to insure a good-looking job. Definite meas- 
urements must be taken to locate carefully the posi- 
tion of the forms. A level should be used in order to 
see that the forms are properly leveled. 



150 CEMENT AND CONCRETE 

To support the forms, drive stakes every 3' or 4\ It 
is considered good practice to put in alternate sections 
of the walk, and, after this has set, remove the end 
form and fill in the section not built. For short pieces 
of walk, however, this is unnecessary. If it is desired 
to give the walk a slight slope to one side, this can be 
done by use of a level and straight-edge, placing one of 
the 2 X 4's lower than the other — 1/4" to 1' is a good 
side slope for a walk, and will cause it to shed the water 
very quickly. To make such a slope on a walk to be 
4' wide, the form in the direction of the slope will be 
set V^ lower than the upper one. 

3) For a one-course walk, nothing leaner than a 1 : 2 : 4 
mixture should be used ; that is, one part of cement to 
two parts of sand and four parts of broken stone. Both 
sand and gravel, or broken stone, should be clean and 
free from clay or other foreign material. If bank-run 
materials are used, careful screening to get the proper 
proportions is necessary. 

4) After measuring the sand required for one batch, 
spread it out in a thin layer on a water-tight platform ; 
then spread the cement on top of the sand and mix to- 
gether dry, continually turning until the color is uni- 
form and mixed together without streaks. The ce- 
ment and sand is then spread out and the coarse mate- 
rial placed on top. It is then again mixed and water 
is added until it is of a quaky or jelly-like consistency. 
Such a mixture can be quickly spread about in the 
forms and easily leveled with a strike-board resting 



PROJECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 151 

upon the top of the forms. Avoid using too dry a 
mixture for floor construction. 

5) The concrete may be shoveled directly from the mix- 
ing board into the form, or handled by means of a 
wheelbarrow. 

6) Level the material off and tamp it enough to force the 
coarse material in from the surface, and bring enough 
cement-sand mortar to the surface to make a smooth 
finish. Slight tamping is also done to remove any air 
or water bubbles from the material. A spade or board 
should be pushed in along the side of the form so that 
all coarse material will be worked back from the edge 
of the walk. 

7 If the walk is to be 50' or more in length, an expansion 
joint should be placed approximately every 50'. This 
expansion joint can be provided by putting in a board 
1/2'' thick at intervals of 50', which should be removed 
after the concrete has properly set, and the groove 
filled with heavy asphalt or Tarvia. To leave the 
board in place is worse than no expansion joint. This 
practice is sometimes followed. 

8) If the material has been mixed to the right consistency, 
the surface can usually be given its final finish within 
one-half hour after placing. The first part of the 
finishing should be done with a wood float, merely to 
level off the surface and make a smooth job. If it is 
desired to make a very smooth surface, continue the 
finishing by using a steel trowel. The troweling proc- 
ess tends to bring an additional amount of cement and 



152 



CEMENT AND CONCRETE 



fine sand to the surface, making it very slick. Ordi- 
narily, this practice is not desirable. 
The edges of the walk must be finished with the edger 
to give a rounded corner. To line the walk off into 
sections, use a straight-edge and groover. This must 
be done before the concrete has begun to set because it 
is sometimes necessary to force coarse material farther 
below the surface to make a good groove. Lay off the 
walk so that the length of the sections will be about 
one and one-half times the width; that is, a walk 2' 




Fig. 149. Form for double step. 

wide should be divided into sections 3' long, or a walk 
3' wide into sections 4-1/2' long. 
9) If the walk is built where it is exposed to extreme dry- 
ing from the sun, it is well to protect it until it has set. 
The protection may be in the form of moist sand or a 
tarpaulin of some sort. The hot sun and dry winds 
will tend to remove the moisture from the concrete 
and prevent it from hardening. Sprinkle the surface 
for a week or ten days, after which the walk may be 
put into use. 



PROJECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 153 

142. Constructing a Doorstep (Figs. 149 and 149-a). 

Requirements: To prepare foundation, construct the form 
and place the concrete for a step and platform at some 
door, or a step at the curb, walk or driveway entrance 
to the house. A 1 : 2 : 4 mixture should be used for 
such a job. 

Tools Needed: Same as in Sees. 140 and 141. 




Fig. 149-a. Doorstep form. 

Material Needed: Enough cement, sand or gravel or crushed 
stone, and water to complete the job, using a 1 : 2 : 4 
mixture. A sufficient quantity of fence boards and 
2 X 4's to construct the form. Boards 1-1/2" thick are 
preferred to light ones. 

Preliminary Instructions: In constructing each piece of con- 
crete work, the requirements of good concrete nmst 
be ever kept before you. In a job of this kind, the 
construction of the forms deserves a great deal of at- 
tention. If a carriage step or small step at curb is to 
be built, it will require little foundation; the ground 
should be leveled and well tamped. For a doorstep, a 



154 CEMENT AND CONCRETE 

sub-base should be provided, and if it is a large one, 
the central portion may be tamped full of clay to serve 
as a filler; in this case, not less than 6'' of concrete 
should surround the filler. 
Working Instructions: 

1) Follow general instructions given for concrete con- 
struction. Carefully prepare the form for the step to 
secure correct dimensions as planned — the proper area 
of platform, the correct width of tread and the correct 
height of riser. It is suggested that the riser be 8'' 
high and the tread 10'' wide; then stock 8'' boards can 
be used as the part of form for riser. Have each part 
of form properly braced so there is no danger of its 
bulging. 

2) For a solid step, a 1 : 2-1/2 : 5 mixture is adequate. If 
the step is to be made from one level to another with- 
out backing, and is to be reinforced, a 1 : 2 : 4 mixture 
should be used; in fact, for small jobs, such a mixture 
is best. 

3) Carefully mix the concrete to a quaky consistency as 
outlined in Sec. 141. Place the material in the form 
and tamp it lightly, working the coarse aggregate back 
from the surface to secure a smooth finish. 

4) The finishing coat of one part cement to two parts sand 
for the platform and the treads should be placed im- 
mediately after the surfaces have been leveled off. 
Where it is not desired to give an extremely smooth 
finish, enough fine material can be worked to the sur- 
face by troweling, and this can be leveled off. The 
risers and sides of the steps can be finished only after 



PROJECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 



155 



the form has been removed . Forty-eight hours should 
elapse for the ordinary job to allow for setting. To 
finish the risers and sides of steps, remove all marks 
made by forms by the use of a stiff brush. If care has 
been observed in working the coarse material back 
from the form and no air pockets have been formed, 







Fig. 150. Section thru hot-bed. 



this method of finishing is sufficient. If the wall is left 
quite rough on removal of the forms, they should be 
wet down and a cement mortar of the same propor- 
tions as used on the treads should be applied with a 
brush. Keep the step moistened for a week or ten 
days until ready for use. 

143. Hot-bed, Foundation Wall, or a Similar Type of 
Construction (Figs. 150, 151, 152). 

Requirements: To build a form such as needed for the walls 
of a hot-bed or the foundation for a small building. 
Determine the quantity of material required. Prepare 
and place the concrete, remove the form in due time, 
and finish the job. A mixture of wet consistency 
should be used. 

Tools Needed: Same as in Sees. 140 and 141. 

Materials Needed: Enough cement, sand and gravel or 



156 



CEMENT AND CONCRETE 




Fig. 151. Foundation wall form. 



crushed stone to complete the job, using a 1 : 2 : 4 mix- 
ture, a sufficient quantity of boards, and 2 x 4's to 
make and brace the 
form, and pieces of 
wire with which to 
fasten it together. 

Preliminary Instructions: 
Concrete is the best 
material available 
for foundation wall 
construction. The 
super - structure 
may be built of some 
other material, but usually concrete will be used for 
the foundation. The particular location of hot-bed 
or foundation wall should be definitely decided so the 
work will not be held back at the beginning of work 

period. To lay Out a 
rectangular foundation, 
one should be careful to 
have all intersections of 
walls exactly 90 degrees. 
This can be easily 
checkedby the''3,4, 5" 
Fig. 152. Wall form above ground. method. This rule is 
applied by measuring along one wall a distance 
from the corner equal to 3 feet; then measure from the 
same point along the other wall a distance of 4 feet; 
then, if the two lines form an exact right angle, the dis- 
tance between the ends of the 3- and 4-foot lines will 




PROJECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 157 

be exactly 5 feet. For convenience and accuracy, any 
multiple of 3, 4 and 5 may be used. 
Working Instructions: 

1) Carefully excavate all soil to proper depth. If the soil 
is firm, it may be used as the outside form up to the 
surface, above which a double form will be necessary. 
For all kinds of foundation walls, it is always essential 
that the footing be wider than the wall proper, and 
that it be carried deep enough to be below the frost 
line. If double forms are necessary, due to the soil 
caving it will have to be excavated to a greater width. 

2) Construct the form with care, duplicating the inside 
and outside wall dimensions as desired. See that cor- 
ners are square, walls are well braced, vertical, and 
carefully aligned. If walls are to be more than six 
feet high, tie wires should be used in addition to the 
supporting braces (Fig. 152) . If this precaution is not 
followed, a bulged wall is likely to be the result. The 
inner form on a hot-bed or other small piece of con- 
crete work, may be supported by braces on the inside, 
running from one wall to the opposite one. 

3) For thin walls up to six inches, a 1 : 2 : 4 mixture should 
be used. Walls more than eight inches thick may be 
made of a 1 : 2-1/2 : 5 mixture. 

4) For a job of this kind, the concrete may be mixed to a 
slightly wet consistency. Care must be exercised to 
avoid the separation of the coarse material from the 
fine, which is possible in a wet mixture. Shovel the 
concrete into form and force the coarse aggregate back 
from the surface of the wall by means of a spade or a 



158 CEMENT AND CONCRETE 

thin board. When the job is a fairly large one, do not 
mix less than the amount produced when a sack of ce- 
ment is taken as a unit. It is desirable to complete 
the job without interruption after it is started. In 
case it is necessary that the work be discontinued for a 
period, see that the surface of the dry concrete is 
cleaned and thoroly wet down before fresh concrete is 
poured. 

5) To insure against cracks in a concrete wall, a few rein- 
forcing rods bent at right angles and placed at succeed- 
ing heights of 12 to 18 inches in the corners, will be in- 
valuable. Reinforcing placed around openings is also 
recommended. 

6) The forms on a wall of more than six feet in height 
should stay on several days. The forms on walls only 
two or three feet high may be removed in forty-eight 
hours. As to finishing the surface of the wall, follow 
instructions given under this heading in Sec. 142. 

Note: When a wooden superstructure is to be built on a 
concrete foundation, it is advisable to set some bolts in the 
concrete at intervals of every five or six feet, to which the sills 
may be fastened. 

144. Constructing Fence Post (Fig. 153). 

Requirements: To construct line fence posts and corner and 
end posts requiring quaky or wet mixtures and rein- 
forcing. 

Tools Needed: Shovels, buckets, measuring box, screen, mix- 
ing platform, straight-edge, flat trowels and suitable 
forms or molds, or woodworking tools suitable for con- 
structing same. 



PROJECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 



159 



Materials Needed : Cement, sand, gravel or broken stone and 
reinforcing steel. For line posts, provide 1/4" to 3/4" 
stone; and corner and end posts, 1/4" x 1-1/4" stone. 

Preliminary Instructions: There is nothing that adds more 
to the appearance and usefulness of a fence than a good 

5C 




17^ ^ iv//-^ 







ffcn Soli- 







Ceos3 S s'CTjo/^ 



Vrf^fff^^^^^-T 



FlG. 153. Corner post, 
line of uniform posts, and there is probably nothing 
that adds more to the appearance of a farm lay-out 
than a good, serviceable fence. A good fence is a real 
necessity on every farm. 
Many of the early concrete posts were failures because 



160 CEMENT AND CONCRETE 

they were not properly made. People tried to make 
posts without knowing the first principles of correct 
construction. Posts were made of poor material, lean 
mixtures, and incorrectly reinforced. To make good, 
uniform posts, provide well-made forms. There are a 
lot of good patented forms on the market, but home- 
made forms are just about as good. A very satisfac- 
tory form for posts is outlined under woodworking 
projects, Sec. 79 and Fig. 136. 

The chief difference between the construction of line 
posts, and corner and end posts is that the corner and 
end posts are usually made right in place, as shown in 
Fig. 153. The hole is excavated, the form built over it, 
and the steel tied in place, and the concrete then 
poured. The method of constructing Hne posts will 
be definitely outlined. 

Working Instructions: 

1) Place forms so they will be level. Clean them with a 
brush, and apply a thin film of oil before placing con- 
crete. 

2) For corner and end posts, a 1 : 2 : 4 mixture may be 
used. For line posts, use a 1 : 2 : 2-1/2 mixture, the 
stone not to be larger than 3/4''. Where materials are 
not screened, use one part of cement to three parts of 
sand and pebbles for line posts. 

3) Mix the materials to a quaky consistency and fill the 
form half -full of material. Tamp until the material is 
free of water and air bubbles. 

4) Press two 1/4'' twisted steel rods into the concrete so 
that they will be within 1/2" of the corners of the post. 



PROJECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 161 

Then fill the form full of the mixture, tamp it lightly, 
and smooth off the surface. Press two more rods in 
place at each corner about 1/2" under the surface; 
then smooth the surface to proper finish. 

5) Leave the posts in the molds at least forty-eight hours 
under most conditions. If the weather is extremely 
dry and hot, they may be removed earlier. To take 
out the post, turn down the hinged end of the form, 
lift the dividing boards between the posts, then grasp 
the post and slide it on the bottom of form by a pulling 
motion ; after it is loosened, it may be lifted out. Han- 
dle the posts with care when green as they are liable 
to be broken. 

6) Set the post on end in sand to cure. Sprinkle daily 
in dry weather for a week. Do not use until the posts 
are one month old. 

145. Constructing a Circular Stock Tank (Figs. 154, 
154-a and 155). 
Requirements: To construct form according to plan, prepare 
foundation and construct a circular stock tank to 
be provided with inlet pipe with float control and 
outlet. Plumbing work is outlined in Sec. 351 under 
head of ''Plumbing." 
Tools Needed: Same as in preceding projects. 

Materials Needed: Enough cement, sand and gravel, or 
crushed rock, to construct tank of a 1 : 2 : 4 mixture 
according to plan. Enough heavy hog wire 80'' high to 
extend around tank and lap 30", and enough to extend 
twice across the bottom and up the sides. For a tank 



162 



CEMENT AND CONCRETE 



6' inside diameter, it will require about four rods of 
fence. 
Preliminary Instructions: A stock tank is a needed piece of 
equipment on every farm. It should be carefully lo- 
cated with reference to lots for convenience; in fact, it 
Tof^ {/^ew OF Forms 











2 1^4. h/e(^e 
Sectjo/v of 




Fig. 154. Circular tank forms. 

may be placed between two lots or where four lots cor- 
ner. A drainage outlet must be provided which must 
be given consideration when the tank is located. Ex- 



PROJECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 



163 



treme care must be observed in mixing, placing and 
reinforcing to insure a strong water-tight construction. 

Working Instructions: 

1) Like every other piece of concrete work, the water tank 
must be constructed on a solid foundation. The soil 
should be firmly tamped before the form is set in 
place. In the preparation of the foundation, the 
proper placing of the outlet and inlet pipes must be 
given consideration, since both should be brought 
thru the bottom of the tank. For a large tank, it is 
well to excavate and form a sub-base of cinders or 
gravel. 

2) The form for a circular tank is the most difficult part of 
the tank to build. 




&iH 
■for inner &/// 



Far- innersi// of" top 



777C f'7aa//'as o'f^ 
hoftonr s/'/f t^ou/c/ 



However, by 
carefully study- 
ing the plan, one 
should experi- 
ence little 
trouble. It will 
be noted on plan 
that both the in- 
side and outside 

forms are made 

Fig. 154-a. Detail of sill for circular form. 
m SIX sections. 

This makes the length of each section equal to one-half 
the diameter of the tank. If the inside diameter of 
the tank is to be 6', the outer length of section for in- 
side form will be 3', less the thickness of boards used. 
The inner length of outside section will be equal to one- 



164 



CEMENT AND CONCRETE 



^ 



J_j 



half the diameter of tank plus the thickness of wall 
and thickness of boards used. If the wall is to be b" 
thick at the top and boards 1" thick are to be used, 
then the sections would be 3' 6" long at the inner 
length. Since the outside surface of the wall of the 
tank is vertical, both sills for the outside form will be 
cut the same. The inner surface should be given a 
slope of 2" to the foot, or, for a tank 2' deep, the bot- 
tom sill for the inner form will be 4" shorter than the 
top one. The sills for this form are best cut from a 
2" X 10" or 2" X 12" timber when a jig or band saw 
is available, making it possible to get both the inner and 
outer sills from the same piece, as shown in Fig. 154 -a. 

After sills are cut, the 
boards must be carefully 
fitted to make a tight wall. 
The boards for the inner 
section are made 5" short- 
er than those for the outer 
section to allow for thick- 
ness of floor. After these 
sections are completed, 
they are assembled in place 
and can be fastened togeth- 
er by strips across ends. 



riNi5H5D Tank With Parts DMc^RANMeD 







- — -rr 
- I' !' 



"I 



"v-. 



J/al\/e 



Ot^er f/on^ /:'//s>e 



Fig. 155. Circular tank complete. 



3) For concrete construction such as this, never use a 
mixture leaner than 1 : 2 : 4. For small tanks, a 1 : 2 : 
3 mixture is better. 

4) Follow method of mixing and placing as outlined in 
Sees. 141 and 143, with the exception of the following: 



PROJECTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION 165 

Set the outer form in place and put in floor first. 
Spread about 3'' of concrete on floor; then put two or 
three strips of the hog wire fence across the floor and 
extend it up the sides. Place balance of concrete for 
floor and tamp in place. Put a strip of hog wire in 
place for wall reinforcing, lap the ends, and wire to it 
the strips that were placed across the floor. Then 
place inner form in position, carefully center it, and 
fasten in place with boards nailed across the top. Pour 
the rest of concrete, keeping the reinforcing near the 
center of wall. It is desirable to provide a concrete 
box in the center of the tank to provide protection for 
the inlet pipe and automatic float. A form for this 
boxshould be constructed, set in place and the concrete 
poured as the tank is being completed. For the outlet 
pipe, a drain with a 1-1/2" coupling should be set in a 
low place in the floor. A short piece of pipe screwed 
into the coupling and extending to a height that it is de- 
sired the water should stand, will act as an overflow. 
5) Remove the forms from the tank in about forty-eight 
hours, and, after wetting it thoroly, apply a cement 
paint to the entire surface. Allow this coating to set, 
then wet down again, after which the tank may be 
filled with water. It should not be put into use for 
a week or ten days, as the green concrete can easily be 
broken by stock. 



CHAPTER XVII 
Supplementary Concrete Projects 

146. Constructing Garden or Lawn Roller (Figs. 156, 

157). 
Requirements: To make a garden or lawn roller, as illus- 
trated, complete with handle for pulling or pushing it. 




Fig. 156. Garden roller. 
Instructions: 

1) Secure a length of drain tile of size desired. If drain 
tile is not available, an old carbide can or other cylin- 
drical can may be used. 

2) Secure lengths of 1/2'' pipe and fittings for axle and 
handle. 

3) Construct a platform on which to make the roller. 

4) Lay out a circle on platform slightly larger than tile. 

5) Bore a hole in platform, the diameter being equal to 
outside diameter of pipe for axle. 

6) Make cross-frame of two 1" x 4" pieces. 

166 



SUPPLEMENTARY CONCRETE PROJECTS 



167 



7) Center and bore hole in cross-frame as has been done 
with platform. Nail blocks on ends of cross pieces to 
hold in place when assembled. 

8) Place tile on platform and center axle in place with 
cross-frame. Nail blocks on platform to hold tile in 
place. ^' P'p<2 




Fig. 157. Details of forms for garden roller. 

9) Axle should extend out of the tile at least two inches. 

10) Mix concrete 1 : 2-1/2 : 4 proportion to a quaky con- 
sistency. 

11) Place concrete in tile around axle. Leave in place 
for a week or more before using. 

12) For handle, assemble pipe and fittings, as illustrated in 
plumbing project. This makes a very good elemen- 
tary pipe-fitting exercise. See Sec. 334. 

147. A Hog Trough (Fig. 158). 
Requirements: To construct form, mix and place concrete, 
and properly reinforce a trough that will be suitable 
for feeding slops to hogs. 
Instructions: 

1) Construct form as illustrated. The inner part of form 
may be made of heavy clay if it is desired to make the 
bottom of trough with a curved surface. 



168 



CEMENT AND CONCRETE 

2) Provide reinforcing. If the trough is to be more than 
4' in length, 1/^" rods should be used in addition to 
the wire netting. 

3) Use a 1 : 2 : 3 proportion, and mix to a wet consistency. 

4) Place concrete and reinforcing. 



Cfeats 




Fig. 158. Hog trough. 

148. Engine or Machine Foundation (Fig. 159). 

Requirements: The requirements of this job will depend on 
the particular machine. A machine subject to a great 
deal of vibration should have a heavy foundation. 
The proper-sized foundation can best be determined 
by the maker of the machine. The structural details 
would be about the same for all machines. 

Instructions: 

1) Excavate and prepare footing for foundation. 

2) Construct form according to plan. 

3) Provide bolts to fasten machine to base. 

4) Provide a template to locate bolts in base. 



SUPPLEMENTARY CONCRETE PROJECTS 



169 



5) Provide pieces of 1" gas pipe for bolts. 

6) Mix concrete of 1 : 2-1/2 : 5 proportions to a quaky 
consistency. 




Fig. 159. Machine foundation. 

7) Place concrete in form. 

8) When form is practically full, set pieces of gas pipe 
with bolts approximately in place. 




Fig. 160. Earth form for cistern or well top. 

9) Fill forms, finish surface, and adjust bolts into correct 
position by aid of the template. 

10) When initial set has been taken, remove template and 
trowel to a smooth level finish. 

11) Remove form after several days and finish surface. 

12) Bolt machine in place. 

149. Cistern or Shallow Well Top (Fig. 160). 
Requirements: To make a circular top for a well or cistern. 



170 CEMENT AND CONCRETE 

Instructions: 

1) Describe a circle the exact size of top desired on a 
smooth level place on the ground. 

2) Carefully excavate inside of the circle to a depth of 4''. 

3) Cut out a cylindrical wood block and locate where 
pump pipe will pass through. 

4) Provide four bolts to fasten pump to top. 

5) Cut two pieces of hog wire for reinforcing across top, 
and two pieces of large, smooth wire for the edge. 

6) Mix concrete of 1 : 2 : 3 proportion to a quaky con- 
sistency. 

7) Sprinkle form so it will not absorb water from con- 
crete. 

8) Place concrete in bottom half of form. 

9) Place reinforcing and set bolts in place. 

10) Fill form with concrete. 

11) Build up concrete where pump is to stand. 

12) Finish surface with slight slope toward one side so 
water will drain off. 

13) Sprinkle top from day to day. Remove at the end of 
a week or ten days. 

150. Manure Pit and Cistern (Fig. 161). 
Requirements: To excavate for manure pit and cisterr, con- 
struct form, and place the concrete and reinforcing 
where needed. 
Note: Refer to project in Sec. 143. 
Instructions: 

1) Excavate for both pit and cistern, and prepare founda- 
tion. 

2) Construct outside form if needed. 



SUPPLEMENTARY CONCRETE PROJECTS 



171 



3) Construct inside form for pit in place. 

4) Provide tile from pit to cistern. 

5) Arrange reinforcing for cistern. Heavy hog wire may 
be used instead of rods. 

6) Construct inner form for cistern. 




Fig. 161. Manure pit and cistern. 

7) Use 1:2:4 proportion and mix concrete to a wet con- 
sistency. 

8) Place concrete in walls. 

9) Remove wall forms. 

10) Place concrete in floor. 

11) Construct form for cistern top, providing place for 
pump, also for manhole cover. 

12) Place concrete for top with reinforcing, and also for 
manhole cover. 



172 



CEMENT AND CONCRETE 



13) Remove form from cistern thru manhole. 

14) Remove form from manhole top. 
151. Feeding Floor (Fig. 162). 

Requirements: To prepare foundations, construct forms and 
place concrete for feeding floor for ten hogs. It takes 
12 to 15 square feet of space per hog. 
Note: Refer to Sec. 141. 




Fig. 162. Feeding floor. 
Instructions: 

1) Prepare foundation by leveling the spot where floor is 
to be built. Remove all vegetable matter and have 
soil thoroly tamped. 

2) Construct form to grade so that floor will be at least 4'' 
thick. Have a slope of 1/4'' to V in one direction. 

3) Mix concrete of 1 : 2 : 4 proportion to a wet consist- 
ency. 

4) Place concrete in floor; complete one section at a time. 

5) Remove forms. 

6) Excavate for curb around floor. 

7) Construct form for curb. 

8) Place concrete in curb. 

9) Remove curb form. 



SUPPLEMENTARY CONCRETE PROJECTS 173 

152. Constructing a Scale Pit (Fig. 163). 
Requirements : To excavate for scale pit, construct form, and 
place the concrete. 
Note: Refer to project under Sec. 143. 




■f^mlelron 



Fig. 163. Scale pit. 

Instructions: 

1) Excavate pit to dimensions to be determined from size 
of scale. 

2) Provide drain for center of pit. 

3) Construct outside form if needed. 

4) Construct inner form so wall will be at least 6'' thick. 

5) Use 1:2:4 proportion and mix to a wet consistency. 

6) Place concrete in wall. 

7) Provide bolts at top of wall to fasten angle iron. 

8) Remove forms from wall. 

9) Place concrete in floor with slope toward center drain. 



174 CEMENT AND CONCRETE 

153. Vault for Privy (Fig. 164). 

Requirements: To construct a sanitary vault for privy with 
partition as illustrated in plan. As many sections can 
be made as desired. This is a dry type of vault, dry 
earth or ashes being used to absorb liquids. 

Instructions: 

1) Prepare footing for vault so its lower level will be no 
lower than the surface of the ground. 

2) Construct form in place. 

3) Provide pieces of wire for reinforcing to insure against 
shrinkage cracks. 

4) Mix concrete of 1 : 2 : 3 proportion to a wet consist- 
ency. 

5) Place floor and wall of vault as one unit. 

6) Remove inner form after twenty-four to forty-eight 
hours, and paint up any holes with 1 : 2 cement-sand 
mortar. 

7) Paint inner surface with a cement wash. 

8) Remove outer form after several days. 

9) Finish outer surface. 

154. Milk-Cooling Tank (Fig. 165). 
Requirements: To excavate, construct form and place con- 
crete and reinforcing for a milk-cooling tank to be 2' 6" 
wide, 20'' deep, length as needed, bottom 8" lower 
than floor of milk room. The bottom to be corru- 
gated to allow free circulation of water with drainage 
outlet. 

Note: Refer to Sec. 143. 



SUPPLEMENTARY CONCRETE PROJECTS 



175 




Fig. 164. Plan of sanitary privy. 



176 CEMENT AND CONCRETE 

Instructions: 

1) Excavate to a depth of 14" below floor level. 

2) Construct outside form in place. 

3) Construct inner form, to be put in place after floor 
is made, so wall will be 4'' thick. 

4) Provide reinforcing material, either rods or heavy hog 
wire. 

5) Put drain in place so coupling will be at surface of low 
place in floor. 

6) As a protection to top of inner wall, provide a 4" chan- 
nel iron with 3/8'' by 6" anchor bolts threaded into it, 
as illustrated. 

7) Mix concrete of 1 : 2 : 4 proportion to a quaky con- 
sistency. 

8) Place concrete in floor to a depth of 6" with reinforcing 
in place. 

9) Form corrugations in bottom of tank sloping toward 
outlet. 

10) Adjust inner form in place, with reinforcing extending 
up from floor and entirely around wall of tank. 

11) Place concrete in walls of tank. 

12) Firmly seat the channel iron with anchor bolts on inner 
wall, hammering it into place with a wood maul. 

13) Remove inner form at the end of twenty-four to forty - 
eight hours, and finish surface with a cement wash. If 
there are any holes, use a 1 : 2 cement-sand mortar to 
fill them. 

14) Remove outside form after several days, and finish 
surface with a stiff brush. 



SUPPLEMENTARY CONCRETE PROJECTS 



177 




44 

to 

.2 

"o 
o 
o 

r 

J4 



CO 






178 



CEMENT AND CONCRETE 



155. A Rectangular Water Tank (Figs. 166, 167, 167-a) . 

Requirements: To construct form according to plan, prepare 

foundation and construct a rectangular water tank, 

to be provided with inlet pipe with float control 

and outlet pipe. 




Fig. 166. Outside form for rectangular water tank. 




Fig. 167. Inside form for rectangular water tank. 

Note: This project is quite similar to that described in 

Sec. 145, with exception of shape. 
Instructions: 

1) Prepare foundation. Set inlet and outlet pipes in 
place. 

2) Construct outside form in place 38" high (Fig. 166). 

3) Construct inner form ready for use so that tank will be 
2-1/2' deep with 6'' floor, and 5" wall at top and 10'' 
wall at the bottom. 

4) Construct form for float box. 



SUPPLEMENTARY CONCRETE PROJECTS 179 

5) Mix concrete and place floor of tank with reinforcing. 
Use 1:2:4 mixture. 

6) Set inner form in place. 

7) Place form for float box. 

8) Put wall reinforcing in place. Use at least four 
twisted 1/4" rods 3' long, bent at right angle at corner, 
in addition to hog wire. 

9) Place balance of concrete. 

10) Remove forms after concrete is thoroly set. 

11) Finish surfaces. 



1 



/, ' : ..^., !^j- 



'"■'"i ' • gS5 



Fig. 167-a. Cross-section of finished tank. 

156. Potato and Fruit Storage Cellar (Figs. 168, 169). 
Requirements: To excavate, construct forms, and place con- 
crete and reinforcing for storage cellar as illustrated. 
Note: Refer to project under Sec. 145. 

Instructions: 

1) Lay out, excavate and prepare foundation for storage 
cellar according to plan. 

2) Construct end forms in place. 

3) Construct inner side form in place. The sills support- 
ing top section of inner form to be divided into three 
parts, the length of each part to be equal to one-half 
the width of cellar. 

4) Provide wedges at bottom of form support to make the 
form easily removed. 



180 



CEMENT AND CONCRETE 






•yTZ^ 




( Co/Tcr-ete f/ocr tv te /a /a' 
offer ce//af^ is f/^/'shec/ 

/^RCh CENTERING 






IP 



Qt^t' 



Fig. 168. Fruit storage cellar. 



D0-hil 
•Section O/^ 




A /3ib 




vyired e^ercf 2'-G'fo prei^enf j>pcadincj 
JfV5/DE FOF^rl f^BnR W/^LL 
Fig. 169. Inside form of fruit storage cellar. 

5) Construct outer side form so wall will be 10" thick at 
bottom of arch and 6'' thick at top. When excavation 
is carefully done, the outer form will be required only 
above the ground surface. Be very careful in bracing 
both the inner and outer forms to get best results. 



SUPPLEMENTARY CONCRETE PROJECTS 181 

6) Mix concrete 1:2:4 proportion to a wet consistency, 
except for the top of arch, which should be to a quaky 
consistency. 

7) Place concrete in lower side wall. 

8) Place heavy hog wire from lower walls over arch to in- 
sure against shrinkage cracks. 

9) Place concrete over arch. 

10) Keep concrete from being exposed to extreme heat of 
sun and moisten each day. 

11) Remove forms after a period of about one week. 

12) Finish job by smoothing off rough places with a brush 
and by plastering where necessary. 

157. Hog Wallow (Fig. 170). 
Requirements: To excavate for hog wallow suitable for 20 or 
30 hogs weighing 200 pounds each. To construct 
form and provide overflow drain and inlet pipe similar 
to drain and inlet for tank described in Sec. 145. 
To reinforce floor and side walls of wallow with wire 
mesh. 
Note: Refer to project under Sec. 145. 
Instructions: 

1) Excavate and prepare foundation for wallow. 

2) Place inlet and overflow pipes. 

3) Construct inner form ready for use. 

4) Construct form for box to protect inlet and overflow 
pipes. 

5) Use a 1 : 2 : 4 proportion and mix concrete to a quaky 
consistency. 

6) Place floor about 4'' thick. 

7) Put reinforcing in place across the floor and extending 
up the wall, as illustrated in cross-section. 



182 



CEMENT AND CONCRETE 



8) Place balance of concrete in floor. 

9) Put forms in place. 

10) Place concrete in walls. 

11) Remove forms and finish job. 



12 feet 



llfeef 



• Cr, 



Pram 



- :|4jb cS ' -r^Slope of dm. t$ 1 J f 



^Wire mesh 
reinforcement 



3E.CTI0N CR055WI5E 




3E.CTI0N LENGTHWISE 
Fig. 170. Hog wallow. 

158. Dipping Vat for Hogs (Fig. 171). 
Requirements: To excavate for dipping vat, to construct the 
forms according to plan, and to place the concrete and 
reinforcing. 



SUPPLEMENTARY CONCRETE PROJECTS 



183 



Note: Refer to project under Sec. 143. 
Instructions: 

1) Excavate main part of vat first, which is 8' ^" long and 
2' 10'' wide. With a 5" wall, this gives 2' in the clear. 

2) Excavate sloping incline for outlet, this to be 8' long 
and same width as body of tank. 




/'''6 Boorc^s 



TZ'/C- 



Detail or 
Incline 



ff£iNro^CEMc/vr I A/ Walls J 2^^ 

Honzonfo/ rods / c//ame ier 
spaced /O'aparf on ce/?/ers i) ~ 

Ver//co/ rods i'd/ome/er f OEC T/OA/ 
spaced 24 'apar/ ory cen/ers 



/-6'6 Post-j^ 

_ V"««' T^ 



P/fch. 



W^f$^¥ 



C(/rb/r>o 
to- O' 




LoNCiTUDiMAL Section 




H. Plan 

Fig. 171. Dipping vat for hogs. 



3) Excavate sloping *'step-ofT'' incline; this to have 2' 
drop and be 2' long. 

4) Construct an inner form so that floor and walls will be 
at least 5" thick. 



184 CEMENT AND CONCRETE 

5) Outside form should be unnecessary if care is observed 
in excavation. 

6) Construct form for curb and floor of dripping pen. 

7) Provide reintorcing to insure against cracks. Heavy 
hog wire is sufficient. 

8) Use a 1 : 2 : 4 mixture and mix to a quaky consistency. 

9) Place concrete in floor first with reinforcing in place. 

10) Put in inner forms. 

11) Place concrete in walls. 

12) Form treads on incline before concrete sets. 

13) Place concrete floor and curb in dripping pens. 

14) Remove forms. 

15) Coat surface with cement wash to insure water- tight- 
ness. 



PART III 

BLACKSMI THING 

CHAPTER XVIII 
Manufacture of Iron and Steel 

159. Preliminary. There is quite as great need on the 
farm and in the house for a knowledge of metalwork and 
f acihties to carry it on as for woodwork and cement work. The 
house-owner and home-maker is more independent if he can 
do the ordinary things about the home premises which de- 
mand the use of metalworking tools for the simpler construc- 
tions and repairs. 

Under the general head metalwork, we shall consider, 
under separate parts, the following special branches 
of metalwork: Forging, Sheet-metalwork, and Farm Ma- 
chinery Repair and Adjustment. 

Under the sub-heads given above, the first will deal chief- 
ly with steel, wrought iron or cast iron, while under the 
second, tin, zinc or lead, or sheet iron, will be the material 
handled. 

160. Iron Ore. The commercial varieties of iron are pig 
iron, wrought iron and steel. Iron is found in the ground in 
natural deposits as ''ore," which consists of metal imbedded 
in mineral and extraneous matter of no value. If the ore 
contains 50 per cent or more of metal, it is called *'rich." It 
cannot be worked commercially with profit if it contains less 
than 30 per cent of metal. The valuable ores are oxides, hy- 

185 



186 BLACKSMITHING 

drates or carbonates of iron. Ores appearing as sulphides are 
poor, as it is difficult to remove the sulphur. However, 
weathering ore — allowing it to stand in the open — will change 
sulphides to sulphates, which are largely dissolved out by 
rain. 

One of the richest ores is magnetite, or black ore, which, 
when pure, contains 72.4 per cent iron and 27.6 per cent oxy- 
gen. Hematite, or red ore, when pure, contains 70 per cent 
iron and 30 per cent oxygen. 

161. Pig Iron is made by crushing ore to uniform size and 
heating it in a blast furnace until it can be drawn off at the 
bottom in a molten condition. The blast furnace is a long, 
vertical cylindrical shaft which is fed from the top with ore, 
fuel or flux. Air under pressure is introduced at the bottom 
for purposes of combustion. The metal when molten is 
drawn off at the bottom, usually twice during twenty-four 
hours, and run into sand molds or iron chilled molds to form 
"pigs" of cast iron. Cast iron has 4 or 5 per cent of impuri- 
ties such as carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, manganese and sili- 
con. The amount of carbon present determines whether the 
iron is gray or white. If the greater part of the carbon is free 
as graphite, the iron is known as gray. If the greater amount 
of carbon present is combined, the iron is known as white. 
White iron, or iron with low combined carbon, is soft. 

162. Wrought Iron is pure carbonless iron produced in a 
pasty condition. It is the converse of cast iron, as it is fairly 
tenacious and extremely ductile. When heated, it can be 
welded better than any other iron or steel. When heated to 
full red and quenched in water, it will not harden. 

Wrought iron may be produced from iron ore in one opera- 



MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL 187 

tion, but this is costly, as the yield is low. Commercially, it 
is produced by indirect methods, by purification of pig iron, 
removing impurities by oxidation. This can be done in an 
open hearth or reverberating furnace, the methods being 
known as the open-hearth and Bessemer processes, respec- 
tively. 

163. The Open-Hearth Process oxidizes the impurities 
of the pig iron by means of adding iron ore to a bath of molten 
pig iron. The fuel is, therefore, in contact with the metal, 
and the oxygen of the blast combined with the impurities are 
eliminated as oxides. This is a comparatively slow process of 
refinement, taking from seven to twelve hours to complete. 
Its advantages are a fine quality of iron produced and a large 
amount of material which can be handled at one time. 

164. The Bessemer Process also is an oxidizing one, but 
the metal and fuel are not in contact. The oxygen is fur- 
nished by means of a large volume of compressed air blown 
thru a bath of molten pig iron. The oxygen combines with 
the carbon to evolve as gases while it combines with other im- 
purities to" form slag. The process requires but a few min- 
utes — from twelve to twenty. 

165. Steel. It is practically impossible to define steel 
accurately. It is an alloy of iron and carbon, but as alloys of 
iron and carbon include cast iron, this definition is not a 
technical one. Ordinary steel may be said to be iron con- 
taining from 0.1 to 2.0 per cent of carbon in combined form 
which has been subjected to complete fusion and poured into 
an ingot or mold for the production of forgeable metal. Such 
a metal — steel — has the composition of wrought iron, but it 
has been produced in a steel-melting furnace. 



188 BLACKSMITHING 

166. Tempering Steel. The greater the amount of car- 
bon in steel, the harder it is, but the more ductile. The 
amount of carbon in steel practically determines the purpose 
for which steel may be used. Steel is hardened when heated 
to redness and quenched in water or oil. 

When steel is heated and allowed to cool, naturally, it soft- 
ens. It is upon this fact that tempering, which is the process 
of getting the proper combination of hardness and ductibility, 
is based. As the hot steel cools, surface oxides are formed 
which range from faint yellow thru straw, full yellow, brown, 
purple and full blue to dark blue. The lightest of these colors 
indicates the highest degree of hardness. 

Machine and Tool Repairs 

Under this heading is considered such work as one may be 
called upon to do in constructing tools and machines made of 
iron or steel, and which does not require the heating of the 
metal. For the most part, such work will be done with hand 
tools, as hammer, chisels, files, drills, taps, dies, rivets, etc. 
Work which requires the careful shaping or fitting of cold 
metal will need to be done in a machine shop and is not con- 
sidered here. 

Tools and Equipment 

For general use about the premises, a small out-building or 
room should be equipped with the following : 

One wooden bench made of well-braced 2'' x 4" uprights 
and stringers covered with plank and fitted with a spring 
screw vise, or machinist's vise. 

One hand forge and anvil, with the common forge tools. 



MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL 189 

One grindstone, hand- or foot-power type, about 24'' in 
diameter and 3-1/2" thick. 

One bench hand emery grinder and oilstone. 

In the room should be stored : 

Wooden horses, wooden and metal blocks, skids, a block 
and tackle, and, possibly, a chain block, crowbars, pinch bars, 
rollers and pieces of iron pipe, rope and rope lashings with 
ends tied or wound, and jacks of the adjustable top and simple 
and heavy erecting types. The bench tools should consist of a 
simple equipment, some of which can be made and others 
purchased, such as: 

Machinist's hammers with ball, straight and cross peens, 
each weighing from 1 to 1-3/4 pounds. 

Hand hack-saw and blades. 

Center and prick punch. 

Machinist's chisels, principally the flat or cape chisels. 

Files, handled, of the rough and middle-cut grades prin- 
cipally, and both single- and double-cut in flat, round, 
halt-round, square and triangular shapes. The total 
number need not exceed 12. 

Drills in sizes ranging from 1/16'' to 3/4" graded to six- 
teenths. 

One drilling ratchet and one breast drill. 

A variety of wrenches, including a good pipe wrench, 
monkey, alligator and a variety of single-end and solid 
or closed wrenches such as those included in a first- 
class automobile tool kit. A variety of socket wrenches 
will also be found very handy. 

Two or three sizes of outside and inside calipers and 
dividers. 



190 BLACKSMITHING 

One scriber. 

One surface gage. 

One surface plate, about 2! square. 

One 2/ rule, carpenter's folding. 

One 6" and one 12" steel scale. 

One 6'' screwdriver, one VI" screwdriver. 

A variety of machine screws, bolts and nuts, washers, 

rivets and cotter pins. 
One small set of taps for cutting machine thread. 
One small set of dies for cutting machine thread. 
One pair 6'' end pliers. 
One pair 6" side pliers. 
One 4" spirit level. 
One carpenter's level. 
One plumb bob. 
One gasoline blow-forge. 

Such supplies as the following should be accessible: 
Waste, cotton wick, emery, emery cloth, lard and ma- 
chine oil, and cup grease. 
It will be well to keep in stock a small supply of bar strap 
and sheet iron. 



MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL 



191 




Fig. 172. Arrangement of forge and tools, showing position of 
blacksmith at the forge. 



CHAPTER XIX 
Equipment for Blacksmithing ; Fundamental Processes 

167. Use of the Forge on the Farm. The village black- 
smith shop has always been a place of both first and last re- 
sort in helping to solve the many construction problems of a 
community. Likewise, the blacksmith's forge on the farm 
may be made the means of developing and repairing many 
tools and machines. The farmer who would save both time 
and expense may very well, therefore, be familiar with the 
work of the blacksmith. 

It is suggested that the forge be a part of the equipm^ent of 
the farm shop and occupy one end of a room, along one side of 
which may be placed the metalworking bench, thus bringing 
the vise near the anvil. It is frequently desirable to grasp a 
hot piece of metal in the vise when it is taken from the forge. 

168. The Forge and Anvil. The forge which will be as 
serviceable as any on the farm, is one of the hand-operated 
fan, or bellows, type (Fig. 172) . In front of it should be placed 
the anvil at easy-turning distance from the forge (Fig. 172). 
It may be mounted on the end of a heavy hardwood block or 
piece of the trunk of a tree, or it may be mounted upon a con- 
crete pillar, to which it should be lagged. The height of the 
face of the anvil from the floor should be approximately 30''. 
It should weigh from 150 to 200 pounds. 

169. Blacksmith's Tools. In addition to the forge and 
anvil, the following general equipment of tools should be at 
hand: 

192 



EQUIPMENT FOR BLACKSMITHING; PROCESSES 193 

One each 1 to 3-pouncl eross-peen, straighi-peen and ball- 

peen hammer. 
One sledge, 5 to 10 pounds. 
One pair of flat-jawed tongs for general work. 
One pair of hollow-bit tongs for holding rod stock. 
One pair of anvil or pick-up tongs for holding short 

pieces' of heavy work while upsetting. 
One bell tong for flat or scroll work. 
. One short-piece tong. 
One handled top and bottom swage. 
One handled top and bottom fuller. 
One handled punch. 
One handled flatter. 
One handled hardie or hot chisel. 
One heading tool. 
One hardie for anvil. 

Figs. 173 and 174 show photographs of a number of these 
tools. Tools other than those listed above and ordinarily in- 
cluded in a blacksmithing kit, are listed under the head of 
'Tarm Machinery." 

Of these, the most essential are : 

Carpenter's square. 

Calipers. 

Dividers. 

Scriber. 

Folding steel rule. 

Tire measurer. 

Vise (solid box blacksmith). 

Cold chisels, one on handle in shape of hammer. 



194 



BLACKSMITHING 




^'r'Ti. ^T*''^'J «' hollow-bit tongs; 6, flat-jawed tongs- 

/ h.rH "? ''; '' ^'"-P^^" ^^"^"^^^' ^' handled chise •' 
/, hardie for anvil; g, chisel. ^i^^^^y, 



EQUIPMENT FOR BLACKSMITHING; PROCESSES 



195 







"S; ted?Xul^!'^1^,t^<''"« ^ooU c. 



196 BLACKSMITHING 

170. Supplies for Forge Work. It is well to carry in 
stock a small supply of wrought iron and steel in the following 
sizes: 

3/8'^ rods. 
5/8" rods. 
1/4" X 5/8" bare. 
1/4" X 1" bars. 

(Note: Also material for buggy tires, bolts and rivets.) 

171. Use of Wrought Iron. Wrought iron will be used 
chiefly. It can be worked either hot or cold. When worked 
cold, it becomes denser, harder, more elastic and brittle, but 
can be brought to its original condition by heating to red and 
cooling slowly. 

The ordinary processes of tool construction are described 
in the instructions for projects. For ordinary work, a ''red" 
heat is given the stock. When pieces are to be joined to form 
one solid piece by welding, however, the stock is brought to a 
"white" heat. 

172. The Fire. The blacksmith's forge is a pan with a 
grate at the bottom which admits the air pumped for the pur- 
pose of creating a draft. The pan, or fire pot, contains the 
coal. This must be bituminous, or soft, coal of the very best 
quality. It is very important that it be free from sulphur 
and phosphorus. 

To build the fire, remove all clinkers, slate, stone and other 
foreign material. Push the coal and coke to one side to ex- 
pose the grate, tuyere, or wind box. Upon this, place a few 
shavings, some straw or paper, and cover with a little kindling 
as the match is applied. 



EQUIPMENT FOR BLACKSMITHING; PROCESSES 197 



Use a very light blast at first. As the fire burns, add green 
coal. When the fire gets strong, surround it with a ring of 
green, dampened coal, except toward the front, which should 
be kept open for the insertion of the iron to be heated and 
used to hold the iron while being heated, and for the tools. 
These should be kept in a horizontal position. As the work 
proceeds and the fire extends into the ring of green coal, it 
may be dampened to hold the fire to a limited area. Green 

coal may be added at the 
rear and the sides, but the 
fire should not be disturbed 
by poking it. As it burns 
from underneath, cinders 
should be raked out to 
keep the fire clear, and 



GREEN COAL 



PAN 




Fig. 175. Cross-section of forge. 



the coal should be gently patted down with a small shovel. 
Continuing this process will keep a clean, well-confined and 
fresh fire. Fig. 175 shows a cross-section thru the fire-pot. 

As iron heats in the fire, the following shades of color will 
appear, indicating the proper condition of the iron for certain 
classes of work: 

a) Dark blood red (block heat). 

h) Dark red, low red (finishing heat). 

c) Full red. 

d) Bright or light red (scaling heat). 

e) Yellow heat. 

/) Light yellow heat (good forging heat). 

g) White heat or welding heat (beyond this, iron will burr.) . 

173. Welding. Upon continued heating of wrought iron 
or mild steel, the temperature increases, the metal becomes 



198 BLACKSMITHING 

increasingly soft, and, if another piece equally soft is touched 
to the first, the two will stick; light tapping will complete the 
weld. The greater the range of temperature thru which the 
metal remains pasty, the more easily may it be welded . The 
greatest trouble in welding is in heating the metal properly. 
The fire must be clean and bright; otherwise, small pieces of 
cinder, etc., will stick to the metal. The heating must be 
slow enough to get the metal heated thru. Have all tools in 
place before taking a piece of metal from the fire. Hold the 
tongs on metal so that pieces can be easily placed in position 
without difficulty. When ''stuck,'' first tap Ihe thin parts of 
the pieces to be welded, as these cool first and most rapidly. 

Do not have an oxidizing fire in welding; that is, not too 
much oxygen going thru fire. 

In the welding process, the oxide formed is really a flux. In 
welding, steel will burn before the oxide becomes white hot; 
hence, a flux is used made of sand and borax; this is put in at 
yellow heat and protects the surfaces to be welded, preventing 
the forming of oxide. The oxide melts at a much lower heat 
when combined with the flux. This is the principal object of 
using a flux. Sal ammoniac seems to clean the surface, so a 
flux is sometimes made of one part sal ammoniac and four 
parts borax. 

The following typical welds should be famihar: 
a) Fagot or pile. Chain-making. 

h) Scarfed. g) Butt. 

c) Lap (flat). h) Jump. 

d) Lap (round). i) Split. 

e) Ring (round stock). j) Angle. 

k) "T" (round stock). 



CHAPTER XX 

Projects in Blacksmithing 

Problem No.l: Drawing and Bending of Iron, 
Projects Suggested for this Group : 

a) Staple (Fig. 176). 

b) Gate hooks (Fig. 177). 

c) Hay hook (Fig. 178). 

d) Eyebolt (Fig. 179). 

e) Stove poker (Fig. 180). 

174. Tools to Be Used. The tools needed to make proj- 
ects in this group, aside from the forge and anvil, are a black- 
smith's hammer (light) and a pair of flat- jawed or hollow bit 
tongs. 

175. Maintaining the Fire. Every operation at the 
forge requires the maintenance of a good fire, the heating of 
iron to the proper temperature, and the proper handling of 
the blacksmith's tools to accomplish satisfactory results. Be- 
fore beginning work on this project, read carefully the instruc- 
tions on preparing the lire (Sec. 172). While work is pro- 
gressing, green coal should be added from time to time, but 
always on the rim or edge of the fire, not on the live fire. The 
fire should be prevented from running into the green coal far- 
ther than desired by occasionally dripping water on the inside 
edge of the rim of green coal. This coal should be kept well 
packed down, thus forming a wall around the fire to be kept 
confined to the grate only. As the coal in the fire is con- 
sumed, remove clinkers and draw in fresh coal from the rim. 

199 



200 



BLACKSMITHING 



1 Q" 



-^i^r-f 




Fig. 176. Staple. 



Fig. 177. Gate hook. 





Fig. 178. Hay hook. 




Fig. 179. Eyebolt, showing steps in construction. 



PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 



201 



The operator must at all times keep his tools in good order 
and near at hand. The hammer to be used may well be laid 
in position on the anvil (Fig. 172) to be grasped by the right 




/ 



"T" 



"1" 




1_ 



Fig. 180. Stove poker. 

hand immediately when the iron taken from the forge reaches 
the anvil. The tongs may be laid on the top of the forge at 

Tool Hole ~y Tace — . Horn 



Heel- 




FlG. 181. Anvil and block. 

the left side of the fire, so that they may be handled by the 
left hand in removing the iron from the fire. 
Working Instructions for the Gate Hook: 

Stock: One piece of 1/4'' round wrought iron 10" long. 
176. Bending Iron. Place one end of the rod in the 



202 



BLACKSMITHING 



tongs held in the left hand, with which place the opposite end 
of the rod in the front and at the base of the fire in a horizon- 
tal position. Heat this end of the rod for 3'' to a light yellow 
or lemon color. 

Withdraw the iron with tongs in the left hand and place on 
anvil with the heated end projecting over the horn 2-1/2". 

Fig. 181 shows anvil 
with parts named. 
Grasp the hammer well 
toward the end of the 
handle with the right 
hand. Raise the ham- 
mer above the iron and 
strike it a light blow just 

beyond the point where 
Fig. 182. Method of bending iron. -^ -^ -^ ^^^^^^^ ^.^j^ ^^^ 

edge of the anvil (Fig. 182). Continue this process until the 

iron assumes the form shown in solid lines at the right in Fig. 

183. This form should be made without reheating the iron. 

Reheat the same end of the iron, again to lemon color. 




h-H 



iTv 



/ » 




L_U 



Fig. 183. Steps in making gate hook. 

Grasp as before with the tongs, but with the iron turned over 
in the tongs so that the part made at a right angle with the 
rod in the first operation is upward. Place on the horn of the 



PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 203 

anvil, as shown in Fig. 184, and, by striking the end at an 
angle with the hammer, shape this end to a complete circle 
centrally located on the end of the rod. The dotted lines at 
the right end of the rod (Fig. 183) show this finished shape. 
The hole in the ring should be 1/2'' in diameter. It can be 
made the right size and circular by forming it over the end of 
the horn (Fig. 184). 

177. Drawing Iron. Heat the opposite end of the rod to 
lemon color, and form V of it to a cone {B, Fig. 183). The 



Fig. 184. Making the eye on gate hook. 

cone is formed by resting the heated end of the rod at the 
angle of the cone on the face of the anvil and gradually rolling 
it from side to side while the hammer 
strikes the iron lightly a repeated 
number of blows. This end of the rod 
is to form the hook. 

Reheat the hook end of the rod for 
3'' to lemon color and bend it over the ^^^^ ^g^ ^^^^^.^^ ^^^ 
horn of the anvil to form a 2-1/2" right- point on gate hook. 




204 BLACKSMITHING 

angle shoulder. This operation is the same as the first one 
described in forming the ring end of the hook. 

Now, grasp the tongs, as shown in Fig. 185, and proceed as 
in forming the ring of the hook to bend the hook end in the 
middle of the 2-1/2'' portion of the L-shaped end to a half- 
circle (Fig. 177) . Bend the point of the cone outward slightly 
over the end of the horn of the anvil. Lay the hook flat on 
the face of the anvil and straighten with a few light blows of 
the hammer. 

If it is desired to have the hook twisted in the center (Fig. 
177), heat the central portion of the hook to a light yellow 
color, grasp the hook end with the tongs, place the ring end in 
the vise, and twist or turn in one direction until the desired 
number of twists are formed and until the hook and the ring 
are in the same plane. 

Each of the projects in this group is made so nearly the 
same as the gate hook, that they require no special instruc- 
tions. The handle both for the hay hook and the stove 
poker is formed of two half -circles joined by straight por- 
tions of the handle. A little care on the part of the operator 
after making the gate hook will enable him to make either 
of these handles. The iron may need to be heated a few 
more times, but this will not be serious unless the number 
of heatings is sufficient to weaken it or unless the tempera- 
ture approaches that for welding heat and the iron is burnt 
in consequence. It is always desirable to heat iron as few 
times as possible to secure the desired shape and form in 
order not to weaken the metal or burn it, as well as to save 
as much time as possible in the work. 



PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 



205 



Problem No. 2 : Upsetting cuid Punch iny. 
ProjectsSugyestedfor this Group: 

a) Open-end wrench (Fig. 186). 

h) Punched screw clevis (Fig. 187). 

c) Machine bolt (Fig. 188). 

d) Log hook (Fig. 189). 

178. Tools Needed for Upsetting and Punching. The 
same tools as those named for the group of projects in Prob- 




FlG. 186. Open-end wrench. 







3 ^ 



Fig. 187. Punched screw clevis. 



lem 1 will be required in this group, and in addition, the up- 
setting tool and punch. 

179. Upsetting and Punching. It is frequently neces- 
sary to enlarge some portion of a piece of iron. This is done 



206 



BLACKSMITHING 



by upsetting. To upset stock, heat it at the point to be en- 
larged, place it on end on the anvil, and pound it on the other 
end with a hammer. Repeat this process for each reheating 
until the stock is of the desired size where it is to be upset. 



o 


T 

I 










\ 










'7> 






— — 4- 





Fig. 188. Machine bolt. 




Fig. 189. Log hook. 

At times, to make a hole thru a piece of iron with forge tools, 
it is only necessary to drive a punch thru it when hot. At 
other times, the stock will need to be bent around to lap 
back on itself, when it must be welded as described in the 
next group in this section, or the hole will have to be drilled. 

180. Working Instructions for the Punched Screw 
Clevis. One piece of 1/2" wrought iron 12'' long will be 
used for this project. 

1) Heat one end of the iron to hght red and bend 1-1/4" of 



PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 



207 



;^ 



it to right angles with the rod over the back edge of the anvil 
(Fig. 190). 

2) Reheat the same end to lemon color, place on the face of 
the anvil with bent end upwards and upset by pounding on 
this upturned end with quick, 
sharp blows of the hammer. 
Roughly shape to approximate cir- C 
cular form by working the cylin- "->_--' 
drical surface on the surface of the ^'^'^^^^ Upsetting for clevis. 
anvil and over its corner. Reheat and continue to upset and 
shape until thickness of flattened end is approximately 3/8". 

3) Reheat to welding, or white, heat, using extreme care 
not to burn the iron. Remove the iron from the forge the 

moment it becomes white. Place it quick- 
ly on the face of the anvil in former posi- 
tion for upsetting, and strike quickly with 





Fig. 192. Appearance of finished 
Fig. 191. A flatter. job of upsetting. 

the hammer two or three times. Finish flat surfaces with the 
flatter (Fig. 191). Turn the iron on edge over the corner of 
the anvil, and strike quick, sharp blows to form circle. If the 
iron is at welding heat and the work with the hammer is done 
quickly, the iron will weld or become a solid mass. Any 
seams which may have formed in the upsetting process will be 
obliterated. Fig. 192 shows the finished end. In a similar 
manner, as described up to this point, forge the other end of 
the rod. 



208 



BLACKSMITHING 



4) Reheat each end separately to yellow color, mark center 
with prick-punch and punch 1/4'' hole one-half way thru iron 
on this prick-punched mark with punch, shown in Fig. 193. 
Reverse the stock, place the end over the hardie hole, and 
drive the punch thru from the other side. Re- 
heat the stock, if necessary, and drive the 
punch thru from each side to enlarge the hole 
to 8/8'' (Fig. 194). 

5) Punch a hole in the other end in a similar 
manner (Fig. 195). 

6) Heat the stock in the center for a space 
of 3", and bend it over the horn of the anvil 
to the shape shown in Fig. 196. The cen- 
tral portion of the curved end of the clevis should be 
straight. 

7) By laying the clevis on the face of the anvil with the 
punched ends hanging over the edge of the anvil, and striking 




Fig. 193. Han 
died punch. 





Fig. 194. Using the punch. 



Fig. 195. Clevis ready to be bent 
into shape. 



the two legs of the clevis with light hammer blows, it may be 
straightened. The two punched holes must be in line. Fig. 
187 shows the finished clevis. 



PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 



209 




'o. 




U 




Fig. 196. Completed clevis. 



Supplementary Instructioris : 

181. Open-End Wrench. Heat 4'' of one end of 1-1/2'' 
X 7/16" soft steel to lemon color, and draw it out to shape and 
dimensions shown at A, Fig. 197. Mark the stock 1-1/2" 
from the point where ^ 

the forging of the han- 
dle was begun, as shown 
by the dotted line (A, 
Fig. 197). Cut the stock 
off on the anvil hardie 
(Fig. 198), or with the 
handled hardie (Fig. 
173), cutting, first, from 

one side and, then, from the other, and, finally, breaking off 
over the edge of the anvil by striking the stock not to be used 
a sharp blow with the hammer just beyond the anvil edge. 

Heat the stock to lem- 
on color and forge to 
shape, as shown in B, 
Fig. 197. The wrench 
end should be rounded 
up, keeping stock to 
original thickness, by 
first forming an octa- 
gon, then a sixteen-sid- 
ed figure, and, finally, a 




Fig. 197. Steps in making wrench. 



circle. This work should be done over the corner of the anvil 
and by moving the edge being formed into different positions 
as the hammer strikes the iron. Reheat the metal and punch 
a hole 1/2" out of center toward the wrench end and expand 



210 



BLACKSMITHING 



it until it is 5/8'' in diameter {B, Fig. 197). Cut the end out 
with a hot chisel or handled hardie to 60 degrees, keeping 
same centrally located, as shown at C, Fig. 197. Reheat and 
forge to shape and dimensions, shown in Fig. 186. This 
should be done by holding the wrench edgewise 
on the face of the anvil with the handle held 
downward at an angle and striking the wrench 
end an angle blow on the end of each prong 
of this end, finally flattening the inside of jaws 
and their surface on the heel end of the anviL 
Smooth up with flatter. 
The wrench should be hardened to make it serviceable. 
Heat it to lemon color and plunge it in water for a few mo- 
ments. This cools the outer surface. When the metal is 




Fig. 198. Har- 
die for anvil. 




Fig. 199. Upsetting and shaping bolt. 



withdrawn from the water, the heat of the center will draw 
out toward the surface. While still quite "warm, put in water 
to completely cooL 

182. Bolt Head. The construction of the square bolt 
head involves upsetting (Fig. 199). Care must be taken not 



PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 



211 



to upset too far, however. When the approximate dimen- 
sions given in Fig. 200 have been secured, heat the upset end 
to lemon color and place the bolt thru the hole in the heading 
tool (Fig.200-a) and into the hardie hole in the anvil, as shown 
in Fig. 200-6. Proceed to up- 
set the head and to keep it X 
circular in form by occasion- -^ 

ally removing it from the 

1 J. ,1 J , IT Fig. 200. The upsetting completed. 

heading tool, and, by rolling 

it in the tongs on the face of the anvil (Fig. 199), hammer 

the head into a true cylindrical form. When the diameter 

of this cylinder is slightly less than the distance between 







Fig. 200-a. Heading tool. 




Fig. 200-6. Using the head 
ing tool. 



B X A 
Fig. 201. Steps in making log hook. 



corners of the finished head, reheat the stock on the head end 
to lemon color and forge the square head (Fig. 188). 

183. Log Hook. Heat 2" of one end of 1/2'' xl'' wrought 
iron stock 5-1/2" long to a yellow glow; place over outside 
edge of anvil with 1" overhanging, and forge to shape, shown 
in A, Fig. 201. Reheat and forge to shape, shown in B, Fig. 



212 



BLACKSMITHING 



201. Reheat and punch hole, as shown in C, Fig. 201. 
Round corners of hole over horn of anvil to shape, shown at 
C, Fig. 202. 




A 

On a^nvil vj" ^~~ 

Fig. 202. Further operations in construction of log hook. 

Heat the other end and taper to shape and dimensions, 
shown in A, Fig. 202. Bend the point slightly over horn of 
anvil. Reheat center of stock and form over horn of anvil, as 













Fig. 203. Two-piece weld. 




Fig. 204. Position of pieces when welding. 

shown by dotted lines atB, Fig. 202. Finish to dimensions 

given in Fig. 189. 

Problem No. 3 : The Process of Welding. 

Projects Suggested : 

a) Two-piece weld (Figs. 208 and 204). 



PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 



213 



b) "T"-wel(l (Fig. 205). 

c) Welded clevis (Fig. 206). 

d) Wagon wrench (Fig. 207 j. 

184. Preparation for Welding. The same tools as 
those named for the previous groups, in addition to which the 



-U 


1 1 1 




' i> *- 


i 












3 





Fig. 205. 'T"-weld. 




Fig. 206. Welded clevis. 




Fig. 207. Wagon wrench. 

operator should have available the hardie and two pairs of 
flat- jawed and two pairs of hollow bit tongs. Some of the 
work in this group should be done by two people working to- 
gether at the forge; hence, the desirability of two pairs of 
tongs. The top and bottom swage, the flatter and the top 
fuller will be needed for some projects. 



214 BLACKSMITHING 

While it is true that the punched screw clevis required a 
welding heat, the exercise of welding on it was comparatively 
simple. Welding is probably the most difficult forge work. 
It requires a perfectly clean fire, exactly the proper tempera- 
ture of heated metal, and both accurate and rapid manipula- 
tion of tools. The end weld is one of the simplest of all the 
welds. It should be practiced until it can be made upon first 
trial, when other welds will be accomplished with compara- 
tively little difficulty. 

It is necessary always to have the two pieces of metal to be 
welded first hammered into the proper shape. Both must 
then be given the welding heatat the same time, taken out of 
the fire together, quickly placed one on the other, and then 
immediately hammered with light, quick blows, while the 
stock is changed in position on the anvil to permit the ham- 
mer to strike all portions which must be joined. 

Just before taking the iron from the fire, it is well to put 
some kind of flux on each of the surfaces to be placed to- 
gether. Sal ammoniac or rosin is generally used. 

Working Instructions for Two- Piece Weld: 

Stock: Two pieces of wrought iron or soft steel, each 
about 5/8" in diameter and 4'' long. 

185. Preparing the Scarfs. Heat one end of each piece of 
stock to lemon color and upset it to 3/4'' from the end. This is 
done by setting the stock on end on the face of the vise and 
pounding the end to be upset (Fig. 208), then rounding the 
enlarged part of the stock on the face of the anvil (Fig. 199). 

Reheat each piece of stock to lemon color and scarf the 
up-set end to shape, shown at A, Fig. 203. Each scarf 
should be one and one-half" times the diameter of the stock. 



PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 



215 



186. Making the Weld. Place scarfed surfaces of each 
piece of stock down in the fire and heat to white or welding 
heat. Grasp one piece with the hollow-bit tongs in the left 
hand, and the other with the 
flat- jawed tongs in the right 
hand. Take both pieces from 
the fire, quickly turn the one 
held by the right hand as it is 
moving toward the anvil, so 
as to place it quickly on the 
anvil under the scarf of the 
piece held with the left-hand 
tongs, as shown in Fig. 204. 
Instantly drop the right-hand 
tongs and pick up the ham- 
mer which should be lying 
near at hand. Strike quick, 
sharp blows on the ends to 
be welded, at the same time turning the pieces with the left- 
hand tongs. Continue until the two pieces are thoroly joined, 
then until the diameter is reduced to that of the original 
stock and the surfaces of the stock at the weld are smooth. 





Fig. 208. Upsetting for two- 
piece weld. 




n 




Fig. 209. One member of 
the "T"-weld. 



Fig. 210. The second mem- 
ber shaped for welding. 



Supplementary Instructions: To form and weld the parts of 
the other projects listed in this group, a few special 
instructions are needed beyond those given for the 
two-piece weld. 



216 



BLACKSMITHING 



187. ''T"-Weld. The center of one piece and the end of 
the other must be upset, as shown in Fig. 209. Fig. 210 and 
Fig. 211 show how these pieces must be swaged to form the 
welded joint. A difference of 1/8'' between the thickness of 





Fig. 211, Position of weld on anvil. 



Fig. 212. Effects upon piece 
of iron from upsetting. 




stock and the upset portions of stock will be sufficient to form 
the welded joint to the thickness of stock, as shown in Fig. 
211. 

188. Wagon Wrench. The preliminary steps of heat- 
ing and upsetting the two pieces of stock for this project are 

similar to those already de- 
scribed. A little more diffi- 
culty may be experienced be- 
cause of the dimensions of the 
stock and the lengths of the 
upset portions of same. When 
the rectangular stock is fully upset, it must be laid flat on the 
face of the anvil and pounded on the upper surface near each 
end to flatten the lower surface (Fig. 212). This will make 
the additional thickness of the upset portion of the stock off- 
set on the top surface. Heat this part of the stock and 
make a groove 1/4" deep with a 5/8" fuller (Fig. 213). 

The remaining exercises involved in making this project 
should be clear by a study of Figs. 214, 215 and 207. Mark 
the points where the bends are to be made on the rectangular 



Fig. 213. Preparing wagon 
wrench for welding. 



PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 



217 



stock of the wagon wrench with prick-punch or hardie before 
heating to make either bend over the edge of the anvil. 



^3 





Fig. 214. The handle of the 
wrench prepared. 



Fig. 215. The pieces ready 
for welding. 



189. Welded Clevis. The drawings for this projectshow 
in detail the succeeding steps in forming one end of the clevis. 
The offset at C, Fig. 216, should be made by striking Ught 

blows just over the edge 
^'-^ oftheanvilwiththepeen 





Fig. 216. Operations in making 
welded clevis. 



Fig. 217. Bending iron 
for welded clevis. 



of the hammer 1-1/2'' from the end of the stock. The form 
shown SitE, Fig. 216, is made over the end of the horn of the 
anvil, as shown at D, Fig. 217. When the 
ring for the end is nearly completed, the 
stock should be reversed on the horn, 
placed over the end and rounded up care- 
fully with the hammer, leaving the joint to 

be welded in perfect condition. One end ^ ^.^ t^. . 

^ Fig. 218. Dipping 

of the clevis should be welded before the iron in water pre- 
other is formed. Before taking the welding ing. 




218 



BLACKSMITHING 



heat, dip the end to be welded in water, as shown in Fig. 218, 
and then, when the heat is completed, make the weld over 
the edge of the anvil, as shown atE, Fig. 216. Reheat and 
drive a 5/8" punch in each eye from each side (Fig. 219). 
Finish over end of horn (Fig. 220). 




Fig. 219. Punching the clevis. 




Fig, 220, Finishing eye of clevis. 



PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 



219 



Problem No.^: Welding and Tempering Steel, 
Suggested Projects: 

a) Butcher-knife (Fig. 221). 

b) Punches (Fig. 222). 

c) Cold chisel (Fig. 223). 

d) Sharpening cultivator shovel (Fig. 224). 




Fig. 221. Butcher knife. 




O*^""!^ 



- UJIOO 




w n 




^C l C)t 



Fig. 222. Punches. 

190. Forging Steel. Tools needed are those required 
for ordinary woi'k at the forge, including flatter and swage. 

The forging of tools which are not of unusual shape de- 
mands only the use of simple exercises in forging. The new 
exercise is that of tempering. 



220 



BLACKSMITHING 



191. Working Instructions for Cold Chisel. 

Stock: One piece 3/4", six- or eight-sided tool steel, 
7-1/2'' long. 

1) Heat 1" of one end of stock to lemon glow and round to 



Q 



^ 



:h 



-^k 



Fig. 223. Cold chisels. 



]T 




cone shape, leaving 3/8'^ flat on end in 
form of circle. Keep circular flat end cen- 
tered on axis of stock ( N, Fig. 223). 

2) Heat 3'' of opposite end of stock to 
lemon glow. Forge to shape and dimen- 
sions, as shown at M, Fig. 223. Care 
must be taken to keep taper uniform on 
both sides and to keep width of stock 
unchanged. 

3) Reheat chisel end of stock to bright red and smooth with 
hand hammer, and, if necessary, finally with flatter. 

4) Heat entire stociv to dull red, plunge each end for entire 
length of forged part in water for a few moments. Remove 
stock from water and allow color to run to li^fht blue at ex- 




FlG.224. Cultivii- 
tor shovel. 



PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 221 

treme end, then pluns^e in water to harden completely. It 
may be well to temper each end separately. 

5) Grind chisel end of tool to a cutting edge, with ground 
surfaces making angle of about ^aw on this line -^ 

60 degrees. If the flattened 
surfaces forming the chisel end 



and the conical end are rough, „^ 
grind them smooth. All grind- J_ 
ing should be done on an 

BiRCn OR MAPLE 

emery wheel if available; other- fig. 225. Handle for 

wise, on a grindstone. Keep butcher knife. 

the tool from overheating and, possibly, burning if it is 
ground on an emery wheel running dry, by frequently plung- 
ing tool in water. 

192. The Butcher-Knife. The butcher-knife is made 
from 1/16'' or 3/32" tool steel, forged thin on one edge to form 
cutting edge of knife. The handle should be made in two 
halves, or, better, in one piece (Fig. 225), to be cut in halves. 
The two halves of the handle should be held in place on knife- 
blade when holes are drilled thru both knife-blade and handle. 
Soft-steel rivets placed in each hole can be riveted down en 
each side of the handle over a rivet washer, to fasten the 
knife-blade and handle securely together. The knife-blade 
is tempered by heating to dull red, plunging in water, or, bet- 
ter, oil, and almost instantly withdrawing and allowing a 
light blue color to draw to edge. The knife-blade can then be 
ground for use. 

193. A Cultivator Shovel. This is sharpened by heat- 
ing, forging and tempering in the general manner described 
for the cold chisel or the butcher-knife. 



222 



BLACKSMITHING 



More difficulty may be experienced, however, in forging to 
shape. Fig. 226 suggests the position of the cultivator shovel 
on the face of the anvil. Position, as shown at A, is the one 
taken after first heating when point of shovel is drawn to a 




Fig. 226« Steps in sharpening cultivator shovel. 

sharp point by quick blows of the hammer. Position, as 
shown at B, is the one taken after a second heating when the 
side of the shovel is drawn to an edge. Care must be taken 
to keep the surface of the shovel free from hammer marks. 



CHAPTER XXI 
Supplementary Projects in Blacksmithing 

194. Directions for Making Wagon-Box Stake-Irons 

(Figs. 227 and 228). 
1) Secure 1/4" strap band iron of proper width, or use as 
substitute old wagon-wheel tire. 




Fig. 227. Wagon-box stake-iron. 




Fig. 228. A lighter stake-iron. 

2) Cut to length as per dimensions with cold chisel or over 
anvil hardie. 

3) Heat in center portion and make inside bends over cor- 
ner of anvil 

4) Heat between center and end, and make each outside 
bend over corner of anvil. 

223 



224 



BLACKSMITHING 



5) Prick-punch for center of holes, and drill or punch, heat- 
ing metal in latter case. 

6) Straighten on surface of anvil with hammer and flatter. 
195. Making a Ring (Fig. 229). 

1) Cut calculated length from band or rod iron. 

2) Heat one end to light red and draw out, as shown in A, 

Fie. 230. 





Fig. 229. A ring constructed 
from rectangular stock. 



Fig. 230. Ends of metal prepared 
for welding. 



3) Repeat operation on 
second end, making drawn-out taper on reverse side. 

4) Reheat entire rod to light red and round over horn; 
bring ends together on face of anvil (B, Fig. 231), ready for 
welding heat. 




Fig. 231 . The ring shaped for welding. 

5) Heat ends of ring to welding temperature, and weld over 
horn of anvil. 

6) Reheat welded part to light red and smooth up over 
horn and on face of anvil. 



SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 225 

196. Constructing a Chain (Fig. 232). 

1) Cut to link lengths 1/4" round, soft steel or wrought 
iron. 

2) Heat and swage ends of link, forming same roughly, as 



^^=2^^^ 



Fig. 232. Chain links. 

shown in perspective in A, Fig. 233, and 5, Fig. 234. 

3) Put link into last one welded, heat and form carefully on 
face of anvil (C, Fig. 235), ready to weld. 




Fig. 233. Preparing the weld. 



Fig. 234. Link ready for 
welding. 




Fig. 235. Link inserted in chain. 

4) Heat to welding heat, weld on face of anvil, and smooth 
over end of horn. 

197. Making Ice Tongs (Fig. 236). 

1) Cut to estimated length two pieces 3/8" x 3/4" rectan- 
gular rod. 

2) Heat one end and form handle. 

3) Heat center and flatten, and form portion for joint. 

4) Heat remaining portion of hook end, form over horn of 



226 



BLACKSMITHING 



anvil to semi-circular shape, and forge end over corner of 
anvil to shape of blunt-pointed spur. 

5) Heat flattened portion to light red and punch for 3/8" 
bolt. 




Fig. 2'36. Ice tongs. 

6) Straighten and smooth on face and horn of anvil. 

7) Insert bolt and burr-end over nut. 



n 


^ 














^ 






3_ 






_ 





4 






1 1 




L 



Fig. 238. Metal prepared for welding. 

198. A Right-Angle Weld (Fig. 
237). 

1) Heat both pieces 1-1/2" on one 
end to lemon color. Upset 1/8" thick- 
er than rest of stock 3/4" in length. 

2) Scarf both pieces, using peen of hammer (Fig. 238). 

3) Heat both pieces, scarfs down, to welding temperature 
(white heat) . Lay together and weld with quick, hard blows. 



la 



Fig. 237. Right-angle 
weld. 



SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 227 



4) Finish to perfect right angle. Round inside corner and 
keep outside corner square (Fig. 237). 
199. Forge Tongs (Fig. 239). 
1) Heat one end of stock, 18'' x 3/4" x 3/8", to lemon color. 




Fig. 239. Forge tongs. 





Fig. 240. Bending iron for 
forge tongs. 



Fig. 241. Shapingthe joint of 
forge tongs. 



2) Lay flatwise over round corner right angle to anvil, 
forge jaw 2" long, 3/4" wide, and taper 

from 3/8" to 5/16" to dimensions, as in 
A, Fig. 240. 

3) Reheat to lemon color. Place on an- 
vil at an angle of 45 degrees, as in B, Fig. 
241; finish to 7/8" wide by 5/16" thick. 
Place stock edgewise and use fullers (Fig. 
242) as shown in Fig. 243, to secure shape, 
as at H and J, Fig. 241. 

4) Reheat to lemon color. Place over 

anvil 7/8" from shoulder, jaw down, as 

in C, Fig. 242; strike at Z), forging 
1 1 T-, T^. ^.. Fig. 242. Top and 

shank to E, Fig. 244. bottom fullers. 




228 



BLACKSMITHING 



5) Heat other end of forging to lemon color. Forge to 
5/16" round to form the handle; cut to 18" over all. 

6) Reheat the Jaw to lemon color. Put 1/4" fuller length- 
wise on inside of jaw and fuller 1/8" deep (F, Fig. 245). 




Fig. 243. Using the fullers. 

7) Reheat eye atG, Fig. 245, to lemon color, 
hole for rivet in center of eye. 

8) Repeat operations for other half. . 



Punch 5/16' 





Fig. 244. Another step in con- 
struction of tongs. 



Fig. 245. Punching for 
rivet. 



9) Heat one end of piece cut from handle to lemon color. 
Cut off 1" for rivet. Reheat and insert rivet and rivet with 
hammer (Fig. 239). 



SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 229 

Tongs for special uses are shown in Fig. 246. Bottom and 
top swages (Fig. 247) may be used to finish handles, as at A, 
B, C and A Fig. 246. 



CO 



^ 



'J± 



FLAT JAWED 




HOLLOW BIT 



PICK-UP 



BELL 



Fig. 246. Several types of tongs used in forge shop. 

200. Repointing Cultivator Shovel (Fig. 248). 

1) Mark new stock for lines A and B under shears (Fig. 
249). 

2) Heat to bright red. Cut on lines C 
with hot chisel (Fig. 249). 

3) Reheat to bright red; scarf inside 
edges (C) to dimensions in drawing. 

4) Heat old shovel to bright red. 
Straighten shovel. 

5) Reheat shovel, place borax on back 
side of section to be welded ; leave it there 

until dissolved. 

Fig. 247. Top and 

6) Place new point on shovel (Fig. bottom swages. 

250), allowing it to project 1/2" beyond old point. 




230 



BLACKSMITHING 



7) Rake coke (good supply) in fire hole, place shovel on it, 
add more coke on top of shovel, then spread a shovelful of wet 
coal on top of this. Heat slowly to welding temperature, 

8) Remove to anvil and strike series of blows all over new 
point. 

9) Reheat other side to welding temperature. 





Fig. 248. Cultivator 
shovel. 



Fig. 249. New piece of stock 
for cultivator shovel. 




Fig. 250. Correct placing 
of new points. 



10) Remove to anvil and weld this side onto point. 

11) Reheat to lemon color, hammer on edges atS, Fig. 250, 
until sharp. Grind off irregular edges. 

12) Reheat to bright red. Bend shovel over horn to shape 
as at the beginning (Fig. 248). 

13) Draw color to straw and plunge in water to harden. 



SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 231 



201. Sharpening Plowshare (Fig. 251). 

1) Place share on floor and mark around outside lines with 
chalk. 

2) Heat 4'' of share, starting at A, Fig. 251, to a bright red. 

3) Place on anvil, as shown in Fig. 252, and forge to sharp 
edge. 

4) Reheat 3" or 4" at a time, and forge to sharp edge until 
share is finished from A toB, Fig. 251. 




Fig. 252. Position of plowshare on 
Fig. 251. Old plowshare. anvil when sharpening. 

, 5) Heat point to bright red, place on anvil and forge to 

sharp point. 

6) Grind off irregularities, 

7) Reheat point and set share so it will have correct suction 
and landside, which are 1/8" and 1/4'', respectivelyo 





Fig. 253. Piece of steel 
for new point. 



Fig. 254. Steel for point 
shaped for welding. 



8) Reheat to bright red and case-carbonize with potash. 

9) Share should fit as nearly as possible to outline on floor. 
202. Pointing Plowshare (Figs. 253 to 256) . 

1) Heat 3" of new stock on one end to lemon color. 

2) Scarf end, as shown at A, Fig. 253. 

3) Heat other end to lemon color. Scarf and split, as shown 
atB, Fig. 253. 



232 BLACKSMITHING 

4) Heat center of stock to lemon color. Bend into shape 
of V, as in Fig. 254, having bottom, or spHt, side 1" longer 
than top side. 

5) Heat old share (Fig. 255) to red heat. 

6) Place on anvil and apply borax on both sides of share. 

7) Heat new point to red heat. 

8) Place new point on share, as in Fig. 256. Reheat to 





J ^.° ° °~1 



Fig. 255. Plowshare to be re- Fig. 256. The point in place for 

pointed. welding, 

welding heat. Apply a little borax to share while it is heat- 
ing. 

9) Remove to anvil and strike a few blows until point is 
welded. Reheat to welding temperature. Continue to weld 
on both sides until finished. Cut surplus stock off sides and 
grind. 

10) Reheat as much of share as possible and set to have cor- 
rect suction and landside, which are 1/8" and 1/4", respec- 
tively. 

11) Reheat to bright red and case-carbonize with potash. 

203. Shortening Buggy Tire Without Cutting (Fig. 

257). 

1) Heat several inches of tire, holding same in vertical posi- 
tion, to light red. 

2) Bend heated portion inward over horn of anvil (A). 

3) With aid of helper, grasp tire either side of bent portion 
with flat-jawed tongs over and against rough surface of horse- 



SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS IN BLACKSMITHING 233 



shoeing rasp (Fig. 258) ; place crosswise over surface of anvil, 
and hammer. 

4) Repeat operation No. 3 until stock is upset sufficiently 
to shorten tire. 




j-^ 



ToN6S-^ ^WooD Rasp 

Fig. 257. Shortening 
buggy tire. 




Fig. 258. Details of method of 
shortening tire. 




Fig. 259. Tire-measuring tool. 

5) Measure outside of felly and inside of tire with tire- 
measuring tool (Fig. 259). Tire measurement should be 
about 1/4" less than felly measurement. 

6) Heat tire to red, one-half way around. Slip tire over 
felly, and shrink on by immediately running in water. If tire 
is too short, it will ''dish" wheel too much. Wheel should be 
dished (out of true plane) not more than 1". 



PART IV 

Sheet- MET ALWORK 

CHAPTER XXII 
Tools and Supplies; Fundmiental Processes 

204. Need for Sheet-Metalwork on the Farm. There 
are many opportunities about the farm for sheet-metal re- 
pairs and construction, especially in tinwork. Kitchen uten- 
sils, the equipment of the dairy and creamery, farm machines, 
water and sanitary systems, and roofs and gutters on build- 
ings, all furnish problems in sheet-metalwork. 

The chief operation in sheet-metalwork, aside from calcu- 
lating sizes and cutting the metal, is that of fastening, which 
may be divided into three classes, viz., soldering, brazing and 
riveting. Welding is not included, as it seldom is used in 
working sheet metal, and, besides, it is considered under the 
heading of Forge Work. 

205. The Process of Soldering. Soldering is the process 
of joining two pieces of metal by means of a more fusible 
metal or metallic alloy. The metal, or alloy, called solder, 
should be selected with the following considerations in mind : 
(1) Its strength should be as great, or greater, than that of 
either of the pieces of metal it joins; (2) its color should be as 
nearly as possible that of the joined metals, and (3) its fusing 
point should be considerably lower than that of either of 
them. 

206. Classes .of Solder. Solder is classed as soft or 
hard, depending upon the degree of fusibility, and, to some 

234 



TOOLS AND SUPPLIES; FUNDAMENTAL PROCESSES 235 

extent, upon the class of metals to be joined by it. Soft 
solder, sometimes called white or tin solder, is made of soft, 
readily fused metals or alloys. Such metals as tin, lead-tin 
and alloys of tin, lead and bismuth are usually used. A 
good formula for the composition of soft solder is: Lead, 
207 parts; tin, 118 parts. To weaken the solder increase the 
number of parts of tin. Increasing the number of parts of 
lead will strengthen the solder. The solder may be prepared 
in a graphite crucible at a low temperature by mixing with 
an iron rod and then running into iron molds. 

207. Soldering Fluxes are substances used to remove 
the oxide which forms on the surface of a metal. They are 
melted and run on the metal where the soldered joint is to be 
formed. The fluxes generally used are powdered rosin or a 
solution of chloride of zinc, used alone or combined with slI 
ammoniac. 

A soldering fluid is a liquid flux and may be prepared 
by mixing 27 parts neutral zinc chloride, 11 parts sal 
ammoniac, and 62 parts of water; or 1 part sugar of milk, 
1 part glycerine and 8 parts of water. 

A very common liquid is prepared by dissolving in an 
earthenware vessel small pieces of scrap zinc in commercial 
muriatic acid. Dissolve one piece at a time to prevent too 
rapid generation of heat, which might break the jar. Finally 
secure a saturated solution by adding more zinc than will 
dissolve. For use in soldering, the solution should be diluted 
with the addition of its own bulk of water, mixed and filtered. 
The addition of a few drops of liquid ammonia will increase 
the activity of the flux, which should be kept in a wide- 
mouthed bottle and applied to the joint to be soldered, just 



236 



SHEET-METALWORK 



before the soldering operation begins, by means of a stick or 
brush. This flux may be used on almost any metal except 
aluminum, zinc or galvanized iron. 




Fig. 261. Equipment for soldering. 

The Soldering Process. Certain metals require special 
solders and fluxes. For most purposes, however, the solder 
and fluxes described are serviceable. 

The best of tools and materials, however, will not secure 
good results unless used in the hands of a good workman. 
To solder successfully the metals to be joined must be fitted 
accurately and cleaned thoroly, either by some means of 
mechanical cleaning, such as scraping or grinding, or by re- 
moval of dirt and grease with acid. 

It is dangerous to use the latter, however, as it may injure 
the metal surfaces, besides its possible injurious effects upon 
the workman. 



TOOLS AND SUPPLIES; FUNDAMENTAL PROCESSES 237 

When the metal is clean, apply the flux to all surfaces 
which will come in contact, join these as planned and run 
the soldering iron over or against the joint. 

208. The Soldering-iron, which is made of copper, 
must be ''tinned" to serve as a solder carrier. Fig. 261 
shows the shape of a soldering-iron. The end is kept filed 
to form well defined edges and a point. When thoroly 
clean, heat and rub on solder, then wipe with a cloth, a piece 
of felt serving the purpose very well. 

To use the soldering-iron heat it in a clean fire, using a 
gasoline torch, a blacksmith's forge, or a tinsmith's gas 
forge, and place it against a bar of solder, when a little will 
adhere to the soldering-iron. 

Another method of using the soldering-iron is to provide 
an open-mouthed bottle of chloride of zinc fluxing solution 
and when the iron is heated, dip the point of it into the so- 
lution to clean it. Then place the iron against the bar of 
solder, and if properly heated a little solder will adhere to it. 
This is the customary method of tinsmiths. Fig. 261 shows 
an open-mouthed bottle of the fluxing solution, together with 
a can of cleaning material, a block of sal ammoniac and a 
wiping rag. The Bunsen burner shown in this picture is 
frequently used to heat the tinner's iron when gas is avail- 
able. 

The iron is now run on the joint and the solder which the 
iron holds will fill the joint, cool, and effect a union of the two 
pieces of metal. The bar of solder is used to hold the tin 
in position. In ease a long joint is to be made, the iron may 
be run slowly against the metal with the bar ot solder held 
against the iron. The solder will thus melt, run down and 



238 



SHEET-METALWORK 



off the iron and fill the joint. Care must be taken not to 
flood the joint by using too much solder. While an iron 
may be run over a joint several times, it is advisable to run 
it over but once. Superfluous solder and the extended use 



Fig. 262. A clean joint. 




Fig. 262-a. A joint where too much solder has been used, 
of the soldering-iron are signs of a poor workman. When 
the soldering-iron is run over the joint many times, the solder 
will flow out on the surfaces of the metal near the joint, re- 
sulting in a ''smeared" joint. Fig 262 shows a soldered 
joint on which no superfluous solder has been used; Fig. 262-a 
shows one which has been smeared with too much solder. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

Projects in Sheet-Metalwork 

Problem No. 1 : 

Making a Lap Joint as Used on Tin Roof. 
209, Stock and Tools for Lap Joint. The stock 
needed is two strips of medium weight, clean new tin, each 
about W long and 3" wide. 




h ^ 



Fig. 263. Tools for sheet-metalwork : a, cutting pliers; h, flat-jaw pliers; 
c, straight snips; _d, curved snips; e, compass; /, tinner's hammer; Qy 
flat file; h, cold chisel; ?, punch ;y, scratch awl. 

A Umited number of sheet-metalworking tools suitable 

for ordinary work on the farm is necessary. The equipment 

may consist of: 

239 



240 SHEET-METALWORK 

1 gasoline soldering torch, 

1 soldering iron, 

1 pair straight snips, 

1 pair curved snips, 

1 tinner's hammer, 

1 wooden mallet, 

1 carpenter's square, 

1 pair cutting pliers, 

1 pair dividers, 

1 punch, 

1 scratch awl, 

1 bar solder, 

1 piece sal ammoniac, 

1 bottle cleaning solution, 
and tools shown in Fig. 263. 

210. Working Instructions for Lap Joint. On one 
long edge of one piece of tin, scribe a mark J" from the edge 





kH 



Fig. 264. Gage for making Fig. 265. Position of pieces for 

joints. ' lap joint. 

with gage of tin made as shown in Fig. 264. This i" surface 
will form the joint (Fig. 265). Clean this surface and a cor- 
responding one, not necessarily determined by a scribed line, 
on the second piece of tin, by wiping clean and applying the 
flux. Place the two pieces of tin together fl«at on a board so 
that the surface of one piece of tin laps over on the surface 
of the other, the edge of the first coinciding with the scribed 
line on the second. The two pieces of tin now lap V'. 



PROJECTS IN SHEET-METALWORK 



241 




Fig. 266. Holding two pieces of tin 
for soldering. 



Grasp a short piece of wood about the size of a screw-driver 
handle with a square or beveled end in the left hand, and with 
it press the two pieces of tin together (Fig. 266). This may 
also be done by using the bar of solder in place of the stick. 
With the right hand, grasp the handle of the hot, well-tinned 

soldering-iron, wipe the 
iron on a cloth or piece of 
felt conveniently placed on 
the bench or table on which 
you are working, touch 
this iron to a piece of solder 
and immediately run the 
end of one of the four "fiats" of the iron on the joint (Fig. 
267) and near edge of the lap. The holding-stick or bar 
of solder must be 
kept near the part of 
the joint being sol- 
dered. It must be 
moved from point to 
point as the iron is 
moved along the 
joint. The heat of 
the iron should heat 
the joint sufficiently 
to run the solder on 
the iron between the lapped surfaces of the two pieces of tin. 
As the iron moves from one point to another the heated 
surfaces will cool, forming a soldered joint. The iron must 
be touched against the solder frequently to renew the sup- 
ply of solder on the iron. When the joint has been formed. 




Fig. 267. Running solder. 



J42 



SHEET-METALWORK 





Fig. 267-a. Correct position of soldering 
iron. 



run the iron slowly the entire length of the joint with one 
stroke, to make a smooth finish. 

This exercise should be repeated, if necessary, until a 

perfect joint can be 
made with a few strokes 
of the soldering-iron. 
Problem No, 2: To 
Patch a Tin Receptacle 
(Figs. 268 and 269). 

Stock — Any tin re- 
ceptacle with a hole 
in it. 

Tools — Those used 
for Problem No. 1. 
211. Preparation for Patching. Perhaps one of the most 
general uses of the soldering-iron in the home is for patching 

^nishe^ job 

jeholc 



xll "hoi* 



Fig. 268. Patching small hole. FiG. 269. Patching large hole. 

tin utensils. Such work may be listed under two heads, viz., 
small-hole patching, where an additional piece of tin is un- 
necessary, and large-hole patching, requiring a piece of tin to 
cover the hole. 

In the first case, the hole is first closed as far as possible by 
pounding the tin around it with a mallet over a surface as 
nearly the shape of the tin surrounding the hole as possible. 





PROJECTS IN SHEET-METALWORK 



243 



The tin is then cleaned by scraping if very dirty, or by the use 
of a Httle muriatic acid, which may be put onto the surface of 
the tin with a stiff feather. The flux is then appUed and 
solder run into the hole with the soldering-iron used as in sol- 
dering a seam (A, Fig. 268). 

If the hole is too large to be closed with solder, a patch 
must be applied and soldered on. B, Fig. 268, shows the hole, 
and Fig. 269 shows it patched. 

212. Completing the Patch. 

1) Secure a receptacle with a cracked seam or a small hole 




Fig. 270, Shallowwatering pan. 

and with a large hole 1/2'' or more in diameter. Prepare the 
small hole (A, Fig. 268) for soldering, as described in Sec. 210, 
and solder, as described there. 

2) Trim the large hole (B, Fig. 268) with a pair of tinner's 
snips (Fig. 263), either straight or curved, depending upon the 
shape of the hole and the tin, whether flat or curved. 

3) Cut a piece of tin from an old can or a piece of sheet 
tin the shape of the hole, but enough larger than the hole to 
provide for a 1/4" or 3/8" lap all around the hole. Clean the 
tin on the receptacle, and that of the patch also; apply the 
fluxing material and solder, as described in Sec» 210. 

Problem No. 3: To Construct a Shallow Watering Pan for a 
Chicken Coop (Fig. 270). 



244 



SHEET-METALWORK 



Other Projects Suggested for this Group: 

Any low, straight-sided tin dish not requiring a wired 
edge. 
Stock — Tin of medium weight cut to size and the same 

as, or similar to, pattern shown in Fig. 271. 
Tools — Those used for Problem No. 1, Sec. 209, and a 
wooden mallet and ruler, or carpenter's square. It 
will be necessary, also, to have a sharp-edged piece of 
hard wood or a straight-edged piece of iron as long or a 
little longer than the longest edge of the pan. 
213. Strengthening the Edge. Ordinarily, it is de- 
sirable to strengthen the upper edge of a tin receptacle by 









I ! 






i-i 



Al- 



-7 



A 



Fig. 271. Tin cut to shape for watering pan. 

running a wire around this edge under the tin which is rolled 
over the wire, as in the case of a tin drinking cup or a funnel 
(Fig. 278). 

This portion of the receptacle may be strengthened, but 
not so well, by folding a small portion of the upper edge over 
and pounding it down against the surface of the tin (Fig. 
272). 



PROJECTS IN SHEET-METALWORK 245 

214. Laying Out and Cutting Tin to Shape. With 
carpenter's square, or with try-square and rule, lay out 
rectangle, 10-1//4'' x 8-1/4''. Inside of this rectangle, scribe 
lines with scratch awl and straight-edge (leg of carpenter's 
square), 1-5/8'' from and parallel to outside edges of this 
rectangle. Scribe lines in the corners for portion to be cut 
out. Turn the piece of tin over and scribe lines 1/8" inside 
the rectangle and parallel to the outside edges. 

With straight snips, cut out the corners, as shown in the 
drawing (Fig. 271) : also cut to the corners of the inside rect- 
angle, formed by the first lines scribed, on the lines marked 
heavy on the drawing and lettered a. 





^^ 



eSurfjice folded under 
ATjd m conta^ct witVi the tin 

Fig. 272. Details of soldering watering pan. 

215. Folding. Over the edge of the piece of hard wood 
or straight-edged piece of iron, fold with a mallet the 1/8" of 
tin between the outside edges and the lines scribed 1/8" from 
same. These surfaces must be folded toward the surface of 
the tin on which the lines were scribed 1/8" from the outside 
edges. Fig. 272 shows the folding operation. Pound these 
surfaces down until they are in contact with the sheet of tin to 
form the strengthened edges of the pan (Fig. 270). 

In like manner, but in the opposite direction, fold over the 
corner of the piece of hard wood or straight-edged piece of 



246 SHEET-METALWORK 

iron the 1-5/8'' surfaces to form right angles with the sheet of 
tin and to make the vertical surfaces on the edges of the pan 
(Figs. 271 and 272). 

Carefully fold the corner laps, lettered h, Fig. 272, to come 
in contact with the long, or 7", edge of the pan (Fig. 271). 

Place each corner of the pan over a square corner of a hard 
piece of wood and square up and smooth with the mallet. 

Solder the inside of each corner of the pan between the end 
and side edges, and also the edge of the corner lap (a. Fig. 
272). Apply fluxing material and use soldering-iron, as de- 
scribed in Sec. 209. 

Problem No. Jf,: To Construct a Receptacle Requiring the 
Assembly of Heavy Pieces of Tin or of Galvanized Iron. 

Projects Suggested for this Group: 
a) Watering trough (Fig. 273). 
h) Flower box (Figs. 274, 274-a, 274-6). 
c) Drip pan (Fig. 275, 275-a). 

Stock for watering trough: 2 pieces heavy tin, 12" x 5"; 
1 piece heavy tin, 26" x 12". 

Note: Galvanized iron may be substituted. 

Tools — A full set of sheet-metalworker's hand tools (Fig. 
263). 

216. Constructing Watering Trough. Mark and cut 
the ends of the piece of metal to form the trough, as shown in 
Fig. 273. Fold the ends up on lines shown dotted in the fig- 
ure, and then turn the piece of metal over, laying it along the 
corners of a square-edged timber on the center line shown as 
the long dotted line in the drawing (Fig. 276). Bend the 
metal down over the timber until the surfaces on either side of 



PROJECTS IN SHEET-METALWORK 



247 



the line are in contact with the surfaces of the timber, thus 
forming the trough. 
Lay out lines on one surface of each end piece of the trough, 




Fig. 273. Watering trough. 

30 



T=; 



T" 



^Cylinder I lon^ |- — e 

ZINC OR HEAVY TIN 

Fig. 274. Flower box 



SIDE 



> k 



BOTTOM 
^ DRAIN HOLE 

1 



LAP 



END 



SIDE 



END 



W 



Fig. 274-a. Details of flower box. 

to form slits into which the folded 

ends of the trough piece may be 

"Suggestion for wooden inserted that it may hang on the 

BOX IN WHICH FLOWtR BOX 

NAY BE SET ends (Fig. 277). 




Fig. 274-6. Perspective of 
flower box. 



Lay each end piece of tin with 
the lined surface up, flat on a 
smooth, hard board. With a sharp cold chisel and hammer 
or mallet, cut along each scribed line. 



248 



SHEET-METALWORK 



Carefully insert the end laps of the trough into the slits in 
the end pieces of the trough from the side on which the cold 
chisel cut, and gently pound into shape with a mallet over the 




Fig. 275. Drip pan. 

h « -IAa 




Fig. 275-a. Layout for drip pan. 



± 

T 
1 



-26- 






24- 



-Ji 




_ Fig. 277. Completed trough. 

Fig. 276. Layout for watering trough; 

corner of a board. Solder all these joints and run solder in 
the intersection between end pieces and trough near bottom 
of trough, where the end laps on trough were not cut, to make 
trough water-tight. 



PROJECTS IN SHEET-METALWORK 



249 



Problem No. 5: Making a Cylindrical Receptacle with Handle 

and Reinforced Edge. 
Suggested Projects: 

a) Drinking cup (Fig. 278). 

h) Small pail (Fig. 279). 

c) Cylindrical pan (Fig. 280). 




Fig. 278. Drinking cup. 
5 





Fig. 280. Cylindrical pan. Fig. 279. Small pail. 

Stock for drinking cup — 1 piece circular tin, 3-8/4'' diam- 
eter; 1 piece rectangular tin, 11-1/4" x 2-3/4"; 1 piece 
rectangular tin, 5" x 1-1/2". 

Tools — A full set of sheet-metalworker's hand tools. 

217. Methods of Inserting Wire. The customary 
method of strengthening the upper edge of a tin receptacle is 
to roll the edge of the tin over a piece of wire in what is known 
as a wiring machine. The wire may be inserted by hand, as 
described below, altho with less likelikood of securing a per- 
fect job. 

218. Shaping Bottom. Pare the end of a round piece 
of stove wood with a draw-knife to a diameter of 3-1/2". 



253 



SHEET-METALWORK 



Sandpaper the surface smooth and saw the end off square 
(Fig. 280-a). 

Place the stove wood in a vise with the cylindrical end up. 
Over this place the circular bottom for the cup so that. the 





STOVE WOOD SHAVED 
TO CYLINDER. 

Fig. 280-a. Piece of wood 
for shaping iron. 



TIN BOTTOM BENT 
OVER END OF WOOD 

Fig. 281. Sheet-metal 
shaped on wood form. 



1/8^' surface to be folded projects evenly around the piece of 

wood (Fig. 281) . Hold the tin with the left hand and gently 

pound the edge of it down around the piece of wood with a 

mallet. It may be necessary to snip the edge of the tin in a 

few places to prevent it from 

buckling. The bending must be 

done carefully. When the edge 

is finally bent over in contact 

with the cylindrical surface of 

the wood, pound the folded 

Fig. 282. Bending sheet-metal portion firmly against the wood 
over piece of wood. 

until it fits like a cap (Fig. 

281). The tin may now be pried off. 

219. Inserting Wire in the Edge. Over a slightly- 
rounded corner of a piece of hard wood, pound the 1/4" 
surface for the wire to strengthen the upper edge of the cup 
(Fig. 282) . When this has been done, place the proper length 
of 1/16'' wire in the rounded corner turned upward as the tin 




ROUNDING EDGE OF 
CUP FOR WIRE 



PROJECTS IN SHEET-METALWORK 



251 




EDGE OFT\N 
FASTENED AT EACH END OVER WIRE 

Fig. 283. Inserting wire. 



lies flat on the bench, fasten the bent edge of tin over the wire 
at each end with a pair of pUers, then carefully pound the re- 
maining portion of the bent edge over the wire until it lies 
smooth and hugs the wire the entire length (Fig. 283). Fig. 

284 shows the process of 
folding a wire in the edge 
of a piece of tin. 

Fold the end laps of 
the pattern in opposite 
directions to form the lock joint seam for the cup, as shown 
in insert, Fig. 279. Roll the entire surface over the cylin- 
drical end of the piece 
of wood used to form 
the bottom of the cup, 
having the wire on the 
outside; lock the joint, 
pound down with the 
mallet and, at the same 
time, slip the cylindri- 
cal surface from the 
wood. 

Solder the inside and 
outside of the lock 
seam, slip the body of 
the cup into the bot- 
tom, and solder around Fig. 284. Folding metal over wire, 
the bottom edge. The cup is now complete except for the 
handle. 

220. Handle for Drinking Cup. Fold the two 1/8" 
outside edges of the strip for the handle (Fig. 285) as in the 




25:; 



SHEET-METALWORK 



case of the upper edge of the watering pan (Problem 3) . With 
the folded edges on the inside, form the handle, as shown in 
the drawing for the drinking cup (Fig. 278), and solder both 




Fig. 285. Details cf drinking cup. 

ends to the cup — one against the wire and the other against 
the bottom seam — over the lock seam of the cup. First, 
gently pound the ends firmly in contact with the cup over the 
seam. This may be done by putting the cup over the end of a 
cylindrical stick, such as a tool handle. 
Problem No. 6 : To Make a Conical Dish. 
Suggested Projects: 

a) Funnel (Fig. 286). 



PROJECTS IN SHEET-METALWORK 



253 



h) Flaring pan (Fig. 287). 

c) Flaring pail (Fig. 288). 

d) Cream dipper (Fig. 289). 

Stock for the funnel — 1 piece of tin, 12" x 6"; 1 piece of 

tin, 5" X 4''. 
Tools — A full set of sheet-metalworker's hand tools. 







h 



■i 



S 



h * H 

Fig. 287. Flaring pan. 



Fig. 286. Funnel. 




Fig. 289. Cream 
dipper. 




Fig. 288. Flaring pail. 



254 



SHEET-METALWORK 



221. Laying Out Conical Shapes. The pattern for a 
cone or for a frustum of a cone is made by describing an arc of 
a circle with a compass or a pair of dividers, the distance be- 
tween the points being the slant height of the cone and the 
length of the outside arc being circumference of the base of 
the cone. 

222. Construction of Funnel. Lay out the pattern 
for each of the two parts of the funnel (Fig. 290) , producing the 




-App 5q 



Fig. 291. Piece of wood for shap 
ing funnel. 




side lines of front view to locate 
the apex of each cone part, in 
order to secure the radius to 
Fig. 290. Metal cut for funnel, gtrikethe proper arcs (Fig. 290). 

As in the case of the cylindrical part of the cup, insert a 
1/16" wire in the space marked 1/4" on the outside of the 
large pattern, and fold in opposite directions the laps for the 
lock seam joints. Carefully form each portion of the funnel 
over a cylindrical piece of stove wood tapered on one end to a 
cone (Fig. 291). Lock and solder the joint for each part, slip 
the upper part into the lower, first spreading out the upper 
opening of the lower part over the surface of the cone-shaped 
piece of wood, and solder the two parts together. The ear 
may be made as shown in Fig. 286, and a small piece of wire 
formed to slip into it to form a hanger. The ear may be sol- 
dered on or fastened with rivets. , 



CHAPTER XXIV 
Supplementary Projects in Sheet-Metalwork 

223. Cylindrical Receptacle (Fig. 292). 

1) Lay out pattern for bottom, leaving 1/8'' for fold. 

2) Lay out pattern for body of receptacle, leaving 1/8'' lap 
on each end for lock joint. 

3) Solderlock joint of 
body of pattern. 




Fig. 292. Cylindrical 
receptacle. 




Fig. 293. Cubical box with lid. 



4) Place bottom in position on body of receptacle and sol- 
der in place. (See instructions for Problem No. 5.) 

224. Cubical Box with Lid (Fig. 293). 

1) Lay out pattern for body of box — a rectangle 3" wide 
and 12-1/4" long. The 1/4" added to the 12" is to provide a 
lap which should be formed on one corner, 

2) Lay out pattern for bottom of box — a square 4-1/4" on a 
side. The 1/4" added to the 4" is to provide two 1/8" laps — 
one on each side of the square. 

255 



256 



SHEET-METALWORK 



3) Solder seam on box after it is folded into shape of square. 

4) Fold edges and corner laps on bottom, place in position 
on box, and solder in place, including corner laps. 

5) Construct cover for box by following description for 
making the body of box. 

225. Stovepipe Collar (Fig. 294). 

1) Lay out pattern for cylindrical part of collar, allowing 
3/8" for lap to be riveted. Rivet joint. 




Fig. 294. Stovepipe collar. 

2) Lay out pattern for flange of collar — a ring, outside 
diameter, 6", and inside diameter, 4". Scribe a 4-7/8'' circle 
on this ring. Clip several narrow notches on inside of ring 
limited by the scribed circle. 

3) Fold notched part of ring into cylindrical part of collar 
and pound in contact with same over cylindrical stock. 

4) Solder or rivet two parts of collar togethere 



SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS 



257 



226. Conductor Elbows (Fig. 295). 

1) Lay out«each section of elbow, as shown at A, Divide 
the end view (circle) into twelve parts, each point to be re- 
garded as the end of a line on the cylindrical section drawn 




I a 3 4- S 6 7 8 9 10 II IZ I 

Fig. 295. Conductor elbow. 

opposite the point. Space the length of the section of the 
pattern into twelve parts, and lay off on line thru each point 
the length of same line in drawing A, 

2) Form lock seams, as indicated, and allow for flange for 
joint between sections. 

3) Form each section and solder seams. Place the parts of 



258 



SHEET-METALWORK 



elbow together and solder. Note that seams of sections are 
placed on opposite sides of elbow. • 

227. Roof Ridge Flange (Fig. 296). 

1) Lay out cylindrical pattern (Fig. 297). Determine 
length of lines, as in pattern for conductor (Fig. 295). 




Fig. 296. Roof ridge flange. 

2) Lay out pattern for flange, notch and punch holes for 
rivets, unless solder alone is to be used to fasten it to cylinder. 

3) Fit cylinder and flange together, bending flange to proper 



|^h;>-MAKE LOCK JOINT IFSOLOEREO ONLY 




Fig. 297. Details of roof flange. 

angle for roof. Rivet or solder cylinder seam and rivet or 
solder flange to cylinder. (These joints may be both sol- 
dered and riveted.) 

228. A Measure (Fig. 298). 

1) Lay out pattern for bottom, as in Problem 5. Fold over 
edge. 

2) Lay out pattern for body, as in Problem 6, for upper por- 
tion of funnel. Solder lock seam. 

3) Lay out pattern for rim of measure, regarding it as a cone 



SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS 



259 




Fig. 298. A measure. 



with apex (a, Fig. 299). (See pattern, Fig. 290.) Note radii 
distances lettered similarly in Figs. 298 and 299. Begin at b 

(Fig. 299) and meas- 
ure the distance hh 
six times in each di- 
rection. This will lo- 
cate points g and g. 
Draw lines ag and ag, 
and extend both to d. 
Also extend ab to c. 
To secure the are 
thru c (Fig. 299), con- 
nect points c and d 
and erect perpendicu- 
lar to this line at center point e to intersect line ac at /. Use / 
as a center and draw arc dcd. Angles between radii ad and 
ac, ac and ad, reading from left to right in Fig. 299, are 
equal. 

4) Make short and nar- 
row V-cuts with snips in 
lap surface on lower edge 
of pattern for rim. Bend 
this lap to fit into top of 
body of measure. Bend 
end laps, form rim and 
solder to top of measure 
body after soldering rim- 
seam at d. 

5) Place bottom in position on body, pound firmly in con- 
tact with body over end of cylindrical stick and solder seam. 




Fig. 299. Details for measure. 



260 



SHEET-METALWORK 



6) Lay out handle, as in Problem 5; form and solder in 
piece of tin h cut to fit. Solder on handle over seam of body. 

229. Three-Piece Elbow (Fig. 300). 

1) Lay out pattern for each part of elbow, first making f ull- 





FlG. 300. Three-piece elbow. 



Fig. 301. Roof cap and 
ventilator. 



sized bench drawing. Use methods given in cases of con- 
ductor elbow (Sec. 226) and roof ridge flange (Sec. 227). 
Allow laps for lock lap joint on each section of elbow. Allow 
3/32'' lap on each end of central section of pipe to fit over, 
and solder onto, end sections. 

2) Solder lock joint on each section and solder sections to- 
gether. 

230. Roof Cap and Ventilator (Fig. 301) . 

1) Lay out and construct 8" cylinder, as in case of roof 
ridge flange (Sec. 227). 

2) Lay out and construct conical cap for ventilator, as for 



SUPPLEMENTARY PROJECTS 



261 



funnel (Problem 6). (Seam should be riveted for ventilator 
of size given.) 

8) Fasten conical and cylindrical parts of ventilator to- 
gether with four strips of 1/2" band iron or heavy tin. Ends 
should be riveted. 

231. Gutter Miter (Fig. 302). 

1) Lay out pattern for each part of gutter. This will be a 




h- 



LONG EDGE OF GUTTER.- 



7 



K^- 




Fig. 302. 

rectangle, length the long edge of the gutter and width one- 
half the circumference of a 2" circle, plus 1/2" to roll over 
heavy wire on outside edge (A, Fig. 302). Cut one end of 
pattern square and other edge at 45 degrees (C, Fig. 302). 
Leave lap on square end to fold, and solder against end of 
gutter. Leave joint lap on end cut at 45 degrees. 

2) Fold edge of gutter over wire. Form gutter (A, Fig. 
802). 

3) Solder «end of gutter in position. 



PARTY 

Farm Machinery repair and 
Adjustment 

chapter xxv 

Farm Machinery as an Economic Factor 

232. Farm Machinery and National Progress. It is 

not the purpose of this section to furnish information on each 
type of machine used on the farm, but to present a few gen- 
eral statements, followed by outlined studies of a few ma- 
chines and their uses, and a few definite problems of repair 
and adjustment. For a more complete discussion, the reader 
is referred to the list of books and bulletins given below. 

Farm Machinery and Farm Motors. By Davidson and Chase. Orange 
Judd Co. 

Agricultural Engineering. By Davidson. Webb Publishing Co. 

Equipment for the Farm and Farmstead. By Ramsower. Ginn & Co. 

Farm Machinery. By Wirt. John Wiley & Sons. 

Bulletins from the V. S. Department of Agriculture and State Agri- 
cultural Experiment Stations. 

- The greatest growth in agricultural development is marked 
by the use of modern machinery. We find the plow substi- 
tuted for the crooked stick; the binder, reaper and mower sub- 
stituted for the cradle and scythe; the threshing machine sub- 
stituted for the flail, and steam and gas power for man and 
horse power. Every country that is backward in the use of 
these modern farm machines, is backward also in every 
other phase of its development. The most striking difference 

262 



FARM MACHINERY AS AN ECONOMIC FACTOR 263 

between the American farmer and the Chinese farmer, or the 
American farmer of today and the American farmer of fifty 
years ago, is a difference mainly of equipment and the efficient 
use of that equipment. 

The effect of the use of modern machinery on our people 
is many fold. It has really made possible our high stage of 
development. In fact, the development of any country is 
measured by its ability to produce an adequate food supply. 
It has been only a few years ago that people of this country 
thot that starvation was staring them in the face. That was 
in times of peace. It has been estimated that in 1800, 97 
per cent of the people of the United States lived on farms, 
and many of them felt the bite of hunger. 

Our farm population decreased slowly until 1850 from 97 
per cent to 90 per cent. This was during a period of a half- 
century. There was no marked development of farm ma- 
chinery during this period, and our development along other 
lines was equally retarded. It was the imaginative minds of 
such men as John Deere, who gave us the first steel plow in 
1837; McCormick, who gave us the binder in 1834, and Pitts, 
who gave us the threshing machine in 1837, that made a start 
for modern farm machinery. Few of these machines were 
built before 1850, but after this period, when factories were 
established and the number of machines built began to in- 
crease, the production of food on a muchlarger scale was made 
possible, and during the next fifty-year period the population 
decreased from 90 per cent to about 40 per cent on the farm, 
or a little over one-third of the total population was on 
farms. 

We can easily imagine the condition that we would be in at 
the present time if 97 per cent of our people were on the farms 



264 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 

without modern equipment. We would be one of the most 
backward people of the world. We would not have any of 
the things which go toward making life pleasant and the farm 
a good place on which to live. 

The use of more and better farm equipment has changed 
the mental attitude of the farmer, it has increased the wages 
of the farm laborer, it has decreased the necessary labor of 
women in the field and home, it has increased the production 
per capita many fold, decreased the cost of production, and 
improved the quality of products produced. 

An abundance of food has made possible our cities, our in- 
dustries, the arts and sciences, our very civilization. It has 
made America the greatest nation of the world. These things 
are made possible because one farmer is capable of producing 
enough food for three families instead of just his own. Many 
farmers at the present time are producing even more than 
this, and doing it with a minimum of labor. 

233. Latest Machinery Most Economical. (Fig. 303.) 
Agricultural production is quite similar to factory production. 
We £nd in the factory certain machines for certain particular 
operations. For example, when we go into a cotton mill, we 
find a carding machine for making the cotton suitable for use 
on the spindle. The same thing is true on the farm; we find 
certain equipment for preparing the soil, special types of seed- 
ing machinery for planting, and special equipment for har- 
vesting. The tendency has been too great on the part of 
many farmers to try to get along without buying the latest 
improved machines. The farmer can no more get the best 
results without the latest modern machines than can the 
manufacturer. 



FARM MACHINERY AS AN ECONOMIC FACTOR 265 

The difference between modern cotton-mill operations and 
the hand-power method of former days is quite comparable 
to the modern farmer as compared with the farmer of seventy- 
five years ago. Production in both cases requires machinery, 
and without machinery of the right kind and properly taken 
care of, neither will be successful. The effect of machinery on 




. -4 

Fig. 303. Motor cultivator, two-row. 

production per capita is very marked. In those sections 
where poor equipment is used, the people simply exist and sel- 
dom are in a position to improve their living conditions. 

The following data collected several years ago illustrates 
the effect of machinery on the production per capita : 

234. Influence of Farm Machinery on Income. 

INFLUENCE OF FARM MACHINERY ON INCOME* 

Value of Farm 

Annual Income of Implements for 

State Each Worker Each Farm 

Florida $119.72 $ 30.43 

Alabama 143.98 . . 33.40 

Iowa 611.11 , 196.55 

North Dakota 755.62 238.84 

The use of machinery and modern equipment has not only 
brought about a greater production per capita, but has also 

*From Circular 21, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 



266 



FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 



influenced our agricultural conditions along almost every 
line. 

235. The Problem of Farm Power. The farm power 
problem is one that is being given much more attention at the 
present time than ever before. To show the tendency to- 
ward mechanical power, the census of 1914 shows that the 
power from horses and mules is equal to 14,230,000 H. P., 




Fig. 303-a. Two-row cultivator with team. 



while the power from mechanical sources is equal to 9, 675,- 
000 H. P. This vast amount of power is more than that 

used by all other industries combined. The investment is 

also much larger than that invested in other forms of power 

in the United States. 

236. Wasting Power and Machinery on the Farm. 

Some of the greatest losses and wastes on the farm are due to 

the use of inadequate machines, poor operators, and to lack 



FARM MACHINERY AS AN ECONOMIC FACTOR 267 

of care of the machinery. All three of these factors should 
have the serious attention of every farmer at the present 
time. Every machine should be adequate for the use for 
which it is intended. It is very easy to get a machine that 




Fig. 304. Checking up machinery for repairs, 
is too small or too large to be efficient for a particular use. 
A great many tractor failures have been due to either the 
tractor's being too large or too small for a particular farm 
operation. To use a tractor of 20 to 30 H. P. to drive a 
pump requiring only 2 H. P. is a mistake often made. It 
is also as poor economy to operate a single-row corn planter 



26: 



FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 



when a two-row planter might be used equally well. In 
selecting a piece of equipment of any sort, the following 
points should be kept in mind : 

1) It should be the most satisfactory for the particular 
work at hand. 

2) It should be easy to operate with least danger. 

3) It should be efficient. 

4) It should be capable of easy adjustment. 




Fig. 304-a. Unprotected machinery. 

5) It should be designed so all parts are accessible and easily 
replaced. 

6) It should be well built of good material to resist break- 
age and wear. 

7) It should not cost too much. 
Wasting Machinery Thru Ignorance. 

The lack of knowledge on the part of the operator has been 
the cause of many failures with modern machines. This is 



FARM MACHINERY AS AN ECONOMIC FACTOR 269 

especially true of power machinery. There have probably 
been more tractor failures due to this one thing than all 
other causes combined. Many machines are bought and 
taken into the field and operated until some trouble develops. 
It is then found that a wearing part was without lubricant 
or was not properly adjusted. Every machine should be 
carefully studied before it is used. An instruction book 
should be secured with each machine, and it should be 
studied as a text. With a thoro knowledge of the working 
parts of a machine, there is little danger of accident, and the 
best results are assured. 

The lack of knowledge of a machine usually results in lack 
of care and lack of adjustment. It goes without saying that 
the man who leaves his binder outside to rust and decay does 
not appreciate its fine points. The same is true of the trac- 
tor. If the farm machines were given the attention they de- 
serve, they would be cared for as machinery is cared for in the 
factory and as the sewing machine is cared for in the home. 

Many machines are being run that should be undergoing 
repairs. The farm machine, as a general rule, is allowed to 
get in a run-down condition and is not repaired until abso- 
lutely necessary, and often such repairs must be made when 
the machine is in the field and when the work should be in 
progress. We cannot expect the best results from machines 
that have been neglected, that have been left in the fields for 
months, or, if under shelter, are not examined until the day 
before they are to be used. The farmer would be greatly 
shocked to see a sewing machine left on the porch for a week 
at a time where the rain and sun would affect it. Yet, many 
farmers allow the binders with their delicate tying mechan- 



270 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 

ism to stay out in the weather for months. These machines 
depreciate in value, become rusty, and are weakened, and 
there is a loss of time when they fail to give service after they 
are taken into the field; also, a loss in production. 

237. Three Considerations — Housing, Repairing, and 
Painting. The proper care of machinery might be classified 
under three heads — (1) housing, (2) repairing, (3) painting. 
In the housing of farm equipment, we do not have to provide 
an expensive building. The implements are not affected by 
cold weather. In sections where the dust is bad, the walls 
and roofs of the buildings should be made tight enough to pre- 
vent its entrance. It has been estimated that the value of 
machinery on the average farm at the present time is about 
$1,000. For such an amount of machinery, the farmer can 
well spend $400 or $500 for a good machinery house. Plans 
for such a shed can be secured from the U. S. Department of 
Agriculture or nearly every state agricultural college. 

In the repairing of farm equipment, the farmer should be 
systematic. If the machines are examined on completing a 
job, and there is not time to repair them at that time, each 
part should be labeled so that parts can be ordered, and at a 
later date they can be replaced. The time to repair equip- 
ment is not when a machine is needed in the field, but during 
the time when the machines are in the machinery shed. 

In regard to painting, it is well to repaint all wooden parts of 
farm implements, as it not only increases the life of the imple- 
ments, but improves their appearance, and where a machine 
is sold after it has been in use a number of years, the cost of 
the addition of paint is repaid many fold. Quite often, where 
the farmer looks after his equipment properly, he will find 



FARM MACHINERY AS AN ECONOMIC FACTOR 271 

that discarded machines can be repaired at sUght expense and 
be made to give as good service as a new machine. There are 
many farmers who discard a machine after it has seen three 
or four years' service, when it really needs only a few slight 
repairs. Such machines can often be found standing in fence 
corners and are used to supply bolts, etc., about the farm. 



CHAPTER XXVI 
Tools and Materials for Machinery Repair 

238. Necessity for Good Tools. Every man who farms 
will find use for a good kit of tools. In fact, suitable tools will 
often give an inspiration to do repair jobs that would. not be 
attempted when inadequate tools are provided. Many of 




Fig. 305. Principal tools needed in implement repair: 



1. Die-stock. 

2. Dies. 

3. Tap. 

4. Stock. 

5. Hack-saw. 

7. End wrenches. 

8. Crescent wrench. 

9. Rule. 

10. Drill bits. 



11. Hammers. 

12. Punches. 

13. Cold chisel. 

14. Monkey wrench. 

15. Crescent wrench. 

16. Stillson wrench. 

17. Trimo wrench. 

18. Tin snips. 

19. Pliers. 



20. Cutting pliers. 

21. Screw-driver. 

22. Flat files. 

24. Round file. 

25. Triangular file. 

26. File handle. 

27. Knife. 

28. Breast drilL 



the tools described in the sections on woodworking and metal- 
working are needed for machine repair and adjustment. There 

272 



TOOLS AND MATERIALS 27:J 

are a few not included in either of these lists that will be men- 
tioned here. All the tools of this group are used without a 
forge. In fact, the great majority of machinery repair jobs 
on the farm are "cold jobs" that are made in the field or in the 
machinery shed. Fig. 305 shows a photograph of the tools 
which are most likely to be useful in making these repairs. 

239. Wrenches. . Wrenches for turning nuts and screws 
are made in various shapes and sizes suited for different uses. 
They are classed as (1) movable- jaw wrenches adjustable for 
turning different-sized nuts, the monkey wrench and the 
crescent wrench being common examples, and (2) fixed -jaw 
wrenches (the distance between jaws being fixed), the straight- 
end wrench, the S wrench and the alligator wrench being ex- 
amples. The alligator type can be used on different-sized 
nuts, but is not as satisfactory as either the fixed or adjust- 
able type. 

Socket wrenches with T-shaped handle are designed for use 
where the nut cannot be reached with an ordinary wrench. 
Socket wrenches can be secured in a set of different sizes with 
a ratchet handle. 

Pipe wrenches are made for gripping pipes or cylindrical 
rods. 

In the use of wrenches, one should always be careful to se- 
lect a wrench that will fit the particular nut snugly. If an 
adjustable wrench is used, screw the jaw down on the nut 
tight before attempting to screw it. Always remember to 
exert force on the handle toward the adjustable jaw. 

240. Vise. A bench vise such as described in section on 
metalwork is well suited for machinery repair. 



274 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 

241. Hammers. A ball-peen machine hammer and a 
hght-weight riveting hammer are needed for many repair 
jobs. 

242. Chisels. The flat chisel, usually referred to as a 
cold chisel, is useful for cutting rivets or old bolts. Other 
special-shaped chisels are useful for cutting key ways and oil 
grooves. 

243. Files. There is a number of types of files designed 
for different uses. Files are used either for smoothing down 
pieces of work or for sharpening tools such as saws and tools 
with cutting edges like hoes. Files can be secured of all de- 
grees of coarseness from the rasp used by the horseshoer to 
the very smooth-cut file used for finishing hard metals. A 
rasp, one or two flat files, one or two triangular, and several 
round files should be provided for general repair work. 

244. Screw-drivers. Several screw-drivers of different 
sizes are needed. Keep sides of point of the screw-driver 
filed parallel to prevent injury to slot in screw. 

245. Pliers. Cutting pliers as well as holding pliers are 
needed . Do not use a pair of pliers where a wrench should be 
used, or for cutting extremely hard wire when a file will give 
best results. 

246. Hack-Saw. The hack-saw is very useful for cut- 
ting pipes, bolts or other pieces of soft metal. It may also be 
used for cutting slots in screw heads or for similar work. 

247. Drills. The most common drills are the breast, post 
and ratchet drills. The breast and ratchet drills are best 
suited for general repair work since they can be used at any 
place without taking a machine apart. The breast drill is de- 



TOOLS AND MATERIALS 275 

signed for small holevS, while the ratchet can be used for mak- 
ing holes of almost any size. 

248. Stock Taps and Dies. Taps and dies are useful 
for cutting threads on bolts and for threading nuts. Pipe 
taps and dies are not to be used for bolt work. Machine 
screw taps can be used for tapping for screws when desired. 

249. Materials Needed. For machinery repair, it is 
essential that there be kept on hand an assorted lot of ma- 
chine, carriage and stove bolts with nuts and washers; an 
assorted lot of copper and soft iron rivets; an assorted lot of 
screws of different kinds and sizes ; an assorted lot of cotter 
keys and pieces of iron rods of different diameters; pipe and 
pieces of strap iron for general use. 



CHAPTER XXVII 
How TO Study Farm Machinery 

250. Three Methods of Approach. Three classes of 
projects can be worked out to meet the need of the student 
when studying farm machinery. The first class can hardly be 
termed projects, but exercises or studies of various types of 
farm implements and power machines. In taking up these 
exercises, students will be expected to obtain a general knowl- 
edge of all kinds of machinery and make a careful study of 
those machines used on the home farms. They will be ex- 
pected to secure booklets describing particular machines un- 
der discussion; these booklets may be obtained from manu- 
facturers or from local dealers. The machines are studied on 
the implement dealer's floor, in farm-machinery sheds, or in 
t? e school shop. Most of this work would be done during the 
time of year when the weather will not allow outdoor work. 

The second type of project is the study of the machine 
while operating under actual farming conditions, the student 
being given a chance to make adjustment as well as actually 
operating the machine. A study of the cost of doing the job 
is carried out in this connection. It may be preparing the 
the seed bed, planting the grain, or harvesting. Each step 
is studied, the work is actually done, the time required for 
it and the cost noted. 

The third type of project is a study of the care, adjustment 
and repair of machinery. Not only can this problem be 
studied by visiting various farms and studying conditions, 

276 



HOW TO STUDY FARM MACHINERY 277 

but actual repairs can be made. Many machines are left in 
the shed without checking up repairs at the end of the sea- 
son's work. Such machines can be inspected, parts ordered 
and repairs made. Gas engines can be overhauled, tractors 
gone over and put in first-class shape. The instruction books 
furnished by manufacturers are an excellent source of infor- 
mation for this work. 

A few general exercises and projects such as suggested 
above will follow, with additional ones briefly outlined. It is 
suggested that a machinery laboratory manual* be available 
for student reference for additional subject-matter, it being 
impossible to cover the subject in this section. 

251. Tillage Machinery. 
Requirements: To make a careful study and make a com- 
plete report on each of the chief tillage machines, includ- 
ing a walking plow, a sulky, a gang and a tractor plow ; a 
peg-tooth, spring, and disc harrow; a disc and a shovel 
riding cultivator; and a smooth and a corrugated roller. 
Tools Needed: Monkey wrench, screw-driver, rule and pair 

of pliers. 
Preliminary Instruction: The importance of a careful study 
of all types of farm machines is well justified by the part 
machinery plays in farm production. The lack of knowl- 
edge and lack of care of many machines on the farm with 
the resulting losses should be an example for every boy in 
his preparation for future farm work. The study of til- 
lage machinery is just as important as the study of the 
tractor and other power machines, altho it may not be so 
interesting. 

*Valuable suggestions ean be obtained from Farm Machinery hy Wirt, 
John Wiley & Sons, New York. 



278 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 

Working Instructions: After being assigned a group of ma- 
chines, the student will read carefully description in text 
references assigned by instructor. In addition, he should 
secure catalogs and booklets describing such machines. 
Next, from a catalog cut out, with a pair of scissors, an 
illustration of each of the machines being studied. Paste 
the illustration on a blank sheet of paper. Then, while 
going over the machine being studied, label all the prin- 
cipal parts. As a report, with the illustration give a 
statement of the function of each part, its construction 
and adjustment. These facts may be determined from 
reference text, from catalogs, from discussion in class- 
room, by examination, removing parts and taking meas- 
urements, or from the instructor in the laboratory. 
252. Study of Seeding Machinery. 
Requirements : To make a careful study of the different types 
of seeding machines that the particular type of farming 
demands, including a study of grain drills, corn planters, 
cotton planters, broadcast seeders, pea and bean plant- 
ers and drills. To make a test of the accuracy of planting 
of the machine studied and calibrate it to plant a definite 
amount, and make a report. 
Tools and Materials Needed: Monkey wrench, screw-driver, 
rule, pair of pliers, scales for weighing, seed for testing, 
and paper bags or other containers. 
Preliminary Instruction: The accuracy of planting deter- 
mines to a great extent the final yield of the crop. So 
every one should know how to test a planter, drill or 
other seeding device. One should not only know how, 
but should actually make a test before using the machine 
in the field. 



HOW TO STUDY FARM MACHINERY 279 

Working Instructions: Follow instructions under exercise in 
Sec. 251, and, in addition, the machine may be tested 
as outlined in Sees. 277 and 279. 

253. Study of Fertilizer DriHs, Manure and Straw 
Spreaders. 

Requirements: To make a careful study of different types of 
fertilizer and limestone drills, including the agitator, 
force-feed and end-gate type. To study manure spread- 
ers and straw spreaders; also straw-spreading attach- 
ments for manure spreaders. 

Tools Needed: Same as in Sec. 251. 

Preliminary Instruction: Keeping up the fertility of the soil 
is one of the greatest problems of a permanent agricul- 
ture. The use of fertilizer drills, manure spreaders 
and straw-spreaders for distributing materials on the 
soil greatly facilitates this work. 

Working Instruction: Follow instruction in Sec. 251. 

254. Study of Haying Machinery. 

Requirements : To make a careful study of the various classes 
of haying machinery — the mower, rakes of different 
types, tedders, loaders, stackers, presses and other hay- 
ing machinery such as is used in the community. 

Tools Needed : Same as in Sec. 251 . 

Preliminary Instruction: The hay crop is one of the most 
valuable of the American farmer. By many it is given 
little consideration; much hay is lost due to lack of care 
in handling. Modern machinery has made it possible to 
handle the hay crop with a minimum amount of labor. 

Working Instruction: Follow instruction in Sec. 251. 



280 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 

255. Harvesting Machinery. 

Requirements: To make a careful study of grain-harvesting 
machinery, corn binders, grain binders, shocking attach- 
ments, push binders, headers, combines and such har- 
vesting machinery as is used in the immediate neighbor- 
hood. 

Tools Needed: Same as in Sec. 251. 

Preliminary Instruction: The modern harvesting machinery 
on the farm plays a similar part in production to the au- 
tomatic machines in the factory. They make possible 
greater production per capita, allowing more people to en- 
ter other lines of endeavor. The cost of production 
where modern harvesting machinery is used is a great 
deal less than where harvesting is done by hand method. 

Working Instruction: Follow instruction as outlined under 
Sec. 251. 

256. Study of Power-Driven Machines. 
Requirements: To make a careful study of power-driven 

machines used on the farm, such as grain separators, 
silage cutters, feed grinders, corn shellers, limestone 
grinders, cane mills and other machines in that section. 
Preliminary Instruction: With the advent of the stationary 
engine and the tractor on the farm, power-driven ma- 
chines in greater numbers will be used each year. Many 
farmers are already buying small threshing outfits where 
formerly the grain was threshed by a large threshing out- 
fit. Such practices make for greater efficiency and bet- 
ter products. The grain can be threshed when in the 
best condition, and the corn cut for silage when at the 
proper maturity if the farmer has his own equip- 



HOW TO STUDY FARM MACHINERY 281 

ment. A careful knowledge of such equipment is neces- 
sary for its efficient use. 

Working Instruction : Same as in Sec. 251 . 
257. Study of Gas Engines, Tractors and Trucks. 

Requirements: To become thoroly familiar with at least one 
type of gas engines, one type of tractors and one type of 
trucks. 

Preliminary Instruction: There is more power used on the 
farm than in all other industries combined. The total 
horse power has been estimated to be more than 25,000,- 
000. More than one-half of this is mechanical power. 
Altho the farmer is one of the greatest power users, it is 
only within recent years that he has paid any attention 
to this phase of his farm problem. Every farmer should 
become familiar with the construction of an internal- 
combustion engine. 

Workiyig Instruction: Follow instruction as outlined in Sec. 
251. Pay especial attention when studying a stationary 
engine to its general construction, the ignition system, 
system of carburation, method of cooling, oiling devices, 
type of governor, and determine for what type of work 
the engine is best suited. In addition, for tractors and 
trucks, note how the power goes from engine to drive 
wheels, the clutch, transmission, differential and drive 
shaft and observe the lever control. Note the wheel 
construction, fenders for protection, seat, arrangement of 
fuel tanks, etc. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 
Projects in Farm Machinery Operation 

258. Conditions for Carrying Out Projects. While 
this series of projects can be carried on at the same time with 
the study of machinery, they are better adapted for home 
projects and can be carried on as outside assignments under 
actual farm conditions along with production projects, such 




Fig. 306. Plowing with horse-drawn riding plow. 

as growing five acres of corn, an acre of potatoes, etc. It is 
not essential that the particular projects that are outlined be 
followed; the chief thing in mind should be to study the ma- 
chinery that is being operated on the farm with the idea of, 
first, becoming familiar with the general method of doing the 
job; second, determining if the method used is the best or 
most efficient, and, third, determining how much it costs. For 
those students who do not live on farms, this work can be 
done by visiting a farm when a particular operation is being 
carried on. 

282 



PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY OPERATION 283 

259. Preparation of Land for Planting. (Figs. 306 
and 306-a.) 

Requirements: To operate horse-drawn and tractor-drawn 
implements in the preparation of a seed bed. To become 
famihar with all the details of operation, determine cost 







Fig. 306-a. Disking with tractor power. 
of preparing land for planting by the two methods, and 
compare the results obtained. 

Tools and Equipment Needed: Implements and power avail- 
able for the particular job. 

Preliminary Instruction: A well-prepared seed bed is essen- 
tial to a good crop, and the work done at the least ex- 
pense means the greatest income to the operator. 



284 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 

Working Instructions : 

1) Each student should harness team and hitch to plow; 
should lay out a field under supervision of instructor or 
farmer, and plow at least one acre of ground, noting time 
required to do the job. The team should then be hitched 
to harrow, and field harrowed, noting time required. 
Make all adjustment necessary to make the plow operate 
effectively and with the least draft. 

2) Each student should get tractor ready for field work, 
make proper hitch to plow and carry out work of plowing 
as outlined in previous paragraph. Proper adjustment 
for proper depth and adjustment to avoid side draft 
should be made. Note time required to plow and harrow 
one acre. 

8) Considering cost and depreciation of the two outfits and 
all other expense entailed, calculate cost of doing the 
work by the two methods. In report, compare quality 
of work done by two outfits. 

260. Planting Corn. (Fig. 307.) 
Requirements: To operate a corn planter. To select proper 

plates for particular corn. To make all adjustments 

necessary to have planter drop and cover effectively. 

Determine cost of planting corn per acre. 
Equipment Needed: Planter complete and team. 
Preliminary Instruction: Careful grading and selection of 

seed corn is as important for good results as proper seed, 

preparation and careful planting. 
Working Instruction: 
1) Select proper plates for planting and test them out upon 

going into the field. 



PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY OPERATION 285 

2) Drive in stake, attach check wire and unreel it from the 
drum the first trip across the field. Place stake at oppo- 
site side of field so it will be directly behind the planter 
tongue after it has been turned into position, and draw 
check wire up to proper tightness as directed by in- 
structor. 

3) Place check wire in trip, set the openers in position, 



M 




Fig. 307. Planting corn. 



lower marker in place and drive across the field. Note 
if planter is dropping. 
4) Observe extreme care to make a straight row the first 
time across the field. After turning into position, change 
stake and draw check wire up to proper tightness. Follow 
marker track with tongue directly above it for second 
trip across field, and continue as outlined above. 



286 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 

261. Drilling Grain. (Fig. 308.) 

Requirements: To operate a drill in drilling grain. To set 
seeding devices for a definite rate of seeding, and drill a 
definite area, determining the cost of the operation. 

Tools Needed: Drill and team. 

Preliminary Instruction: Same general instruction with ref- 




FlG. 308. Drilling grain. 

erence to selecting seed corn also applies to small grain. 
In general, it should be remembered to plant across the 
slope instead of along the slope. This is to check erosion 
and avoid starting a small gully by washing at the wheel 
tracks. 
Working Instruction: 

1) Adjust feeding device for a definite rate of seeding. It is 
best to do this by test rather than to be guided by dial. 

2) After drill is driven in position, lower the furrow openers 
into ground. 

3) Drive across field, noting that the openers do not clog 
and that the seed is passing down into the soil. 



PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY OPERATION 287 

4) On all following trips, be careful to note where the last 
track was made in order that no ground will be missed 
or gone over twice. 
262. Harvesting Corn for Silage. (Fig. 309.) 
Requirements: To assist in harvesting corn and putting it 
into the silo. To operate each machine for a period long 
enough to become familiar with each detail of the work. 
To determine the cost of each operation in harvesting 
the corn from the field to putting it into the silo as silage » 





Fig. 309. Cutting silage. 

Equipment Needed: Corn binder, wagons, silage cutter, 
teams and engine for power. 

Preliminary Instruction : Due to the fact that corn as silage 
is so highly palatable and nutritious, practical, successful 
dairymen and cattle feeders have silos. When corn is 
put into the form of silage, practically none of it is wasted. 

Working Instruction: 
1) Operate binder in cutting the corn. 



288 



FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 



2) Note the rate of cutting and estimate the number oi acres 
cut per hour and cost of cutting per ton. 

3) Compare cost of cutting by machine and cutting by- 
hand. 

4) Haul a load of corn from field to silage cutter. 

5) Determine the cost of hauling per ton. 

6) Operate silage cutter. 

7) Note special safety devices on cutter^ 





bt^' 'PM I'iJ. iC'i ^' 1"^.. .* ' 



'4*' Kfe* 



Fig. 310. Harvesting grain with tractor power. 

8) Note the rate of cutting in loads and in tons per day. 

9) Note the type of engine used to drive cutter. 

10) Determine the cost of operating engine. 

11) Note the method of elevating the silage into the silo. 

12) Assist in packing the silage in the silo. 

13) Note the total number in the crew on the various types 
of work. 

14) Determine the total cost of getting the silage into the silo. 

15) Determine the capacity of the silo. 

16) Determine the cost per ton in getting the corn from the 
field into the silo as silage. 



PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY OPERATION 289 

263. Harvesting Grain. (Fig. 310.) 

Requirements : To assist in the various operations of harvest- 
ing grain, from cutting with a binder and shocker 
through threshing. To determine the cost as far as 
possible for each operation, to be able finally to determine 
cost of producing a bushel of wheat or a bushel of corn. 

Equipment Needed: Binder, teams or tractor, wagon, and 
threshing outfit. 

Preliminary Instruction: It is just as essential that the 
farmer know how much it costs to grow a bushel of grain 
as that the manufacturer know how much it costs to mill 
100 pounds of flour. The harvest season on the farm is a 
season when labor is in demand. It is essential that the 
grain be cut when at the proper stage of ripeness and 
threshed when properly cured. For these reasons it is 
important that some study be made of the processes 
of harvesting grain. 

Working Instruction: 

1) Get binder ready for cutting, with a satisfactory hitch 
and properly adjusted and lubricated. 

2) Operate binder and note the rate of cutting. 

3) Learn to shock the grain properly so it will not fall down 
or blow over. 

4) Note the number of men required behind the binder. 

5) Determine the cost of cutting and shocking per acre. 

6) Later, when grain is ready for threshing, load grain on 
rack and haul to threshing outfit. 

7) Pitch grain from rack onto threshing feed table. 

8) Note each operation that takes place in the threshing 
machine, from the time the grain bundles are on the feed 
table until the grain is weighed. 



290 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 

9) Determine amount of grain produced per acre. 
10) Make a summary of the cost of each operation in pro- 
ducing an acre of wheat, the total cost per acre, and the 
cost per bushel. 
264. Harvesting Hay Crops. (Fig. 311.) 
Requirements: To assist in the various operations of har- 
vesting hay from cutting to baling. To determine the 
cost of each operation as accurately as possible, and, 
finally, to determine cost of producing a ton of hay. 





Fig. 811. Using a hay loader. 

Equipment Needed : Mower, rakes, loaders, balers and power. 

Preliminary Instruction: Hay is a crop that has to be made 
while the sun shines. It must be cut at the right time, 
and cured to the right degree before it can be stacked, 
stored or baled. Handling of the hay depends much on 
the weather. The condition of the crop must also be 
considered. The proper time to cut alfalfa and other 
hay crops will be taken up in the study of crops. 



PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY OPERATION 291 

Working Instructions : 

1) See that mower is properly oiled and that the sickle is 
sharp. A steady team is essential to the best success in 
mowing. 

2) Lay out land for cutting, size and shape depending on 
area to be mowed. 

3) If ground is rough, adjust cutter bar so it will not cut 
into the ground. 

4) Locate stumps or other obstructions in the field. This 
is to avoid accident. 

5) Drive at a uniform speed. It is the slowing down v/hich 
causes clogging in heavy grass. 

6) Observe care in judging width of swath; cut a full width, 
but do not leave any uncut. 

7) When a side-delivery rake is used, follow in same direc- 
tion as with mower. 

8) Ordinarily, rake after dew is off and before leaves have 
dried to a point where they shatter. 

9) With a dump rake, practice care in dumping so the rick 
or wind-row of hay will be reasonably straight. This 
makes loading easier. 

10) The loader is best used when the hay has been raked with 
a side-delivery. Hook the loader on back of wagon and 
drive straddle of the rick. 

11) Keep one man on the wagon to distribute hay on load, 
and another to drive. 

12) If slings and carrier are to be used in unloading, put on 
three or four slings to the load. 

13) If fork and carrier are to be used, put on one sling at bot- 
tom of load to clean off the rack in unloading. 



292 



FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 



14) If hay is baled, carry out each operation in this work, 
feeding the hay, putting in dividing block, placing wires, 
tying, etc. 

15) Determine as accurately as possible cost of harvesting 
hay by the ton. 

265. Operating Household Equipment. (Fig. 312.) 



v)"h3ck TboK 



Pump 





Fig. 312. Gravity water system, 
with gas engine. 



Requirements: To operate each of the various machines 
about the household under the supervision of some one 
thoroly familiar with their use. To make a report on 
value of equipment in the home from the standpoint of 
time- and labor-saving. 

Equipment Needed: The equipment for this project can be 
found in any modern farmhouse. It is simply a matter 
of the instructor or students obtaining permission to use 
equipment in the home as a laboratory. 



PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY OPERATION 293 

Preliminary Instruction: So many farm homes are now 
being equipped with modern hghting, heating and water 
systems and sewage-disposal plants, that it is essential 
that every farm boy, and girl as well, become acquainted 
with the use of this equipment. The best way to become 
acquainted with its use is to use it. Follow instructions 
furnished by manufacturers. 




Fig. 312-a Farm lighting plant with storage battery. 

Working Instruction: 

1) Lubricate plant, put in fuel and fill radiator. 

2) Start electric plant. 

3) Turn lights off, and on. 

4) Stop plant. 

5) Turn lights on so they use power from storage battery. 

6) Charge storage battery, note rate of charging. 

7) Stop plant; note automatic stopping device. 

8) Operate acetylene light plant. 

9) Remove water and sludge from plant. 

10) Put in a charge of carbide and fresh water. 

11) Operate Blau gas plant. 

12) Disconnect and replace a container of Blau gas. 

13) Operate gasoline plant. 



294 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 

14) Fill tank with gasoline. 

15) Crank up pressure motor or pump air into tank. 

16) Fire a furnace and clean out all ashes and clinkers. 

17) Note use of special devices for controlling draft and tem- 
perature. 

18) Start and operate different water systems. 

19) Note the difference in amount of work required when 
water is carried in and when it is pumped by machinery. 

20) Study washing equipment. 

21) Note difference in amount of time required to do the 
washing when a power washing machine is used and 
when a scrub board is used. 

266. Gas Tractor Operation. (Fig. 313.) 

Requirements: To become thoroly familiar with the method 
of operation of as many types of tractors as possible. 

Tools and Materials Needed : Set of tools secured with tractor. 
Fuel, oil and extra spark plugs. 

Preliminary Instructions: In operating and handling a trac- 
tor, one should be very careful to avoid breaking any 
parts. Always he sure — then go ahead. Do not attempt 
to start a tractor for the first time unless under the direc- 
tion of some one who knows. Remember, that there is 
more danger in starting a tractor than in starting a small 
stationary engine, on account of danger of personal in- 
jury and of damage to the tractor and buildings. Re- 
member, also, that you are handUng an expensive ma- 
chine when operating a tractor. 

Working Instructions: 
A. Getting tractor ready and starting it. 
1) See that the tractor is completely lubricated. 



PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY OPERATION 295 

2) See that the clutch works freely. 

3) If brakes are provided, see that they are released. 

4) Study the manipulation of the various controlling levers. 




Fig. 313. Plowing with a tractor. 

5) See that the gears are not in mesh. 

6) See that the clutch is not engaged . 

7) Turn on gasoline. 

8) Open needle valve on carburetor. 

9) Retard the spark. 



296 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 

10) Trip the impulse starter, if any. 

11) Prime the motor with gasoline if weather is cold. 

12) Crank the motor. 

B. Tractor operation. 

1) To start the tractor forward or reverse, (a) see that the 
pulley wheel is not revolving; (b) see that clutch is not 
engaged; (c) shift gears slowly — if they do not mesh, en- 
gage the clutch slightly, then disengage it — continue the 
process until gears mesh ; (d) engage clutch and the trac- 
tor should run. 

2) To stop tractor, (a) disengage clutch; (b) apply brake if 
necessary; (c) shift gears to neutral position. 

8) Take tractor outside and practice starting and stopping, 
(a) Run forward a few yards in low, then stop ; (b) reverse, 
run backward a few yards, then stop; (c) run forward a 
few yards in high, then stop; (d) turn the tractor around, 
as in plowing, and note the space required to turn it in. 

4) Examine the tractor carefully and see that it is in perfect 
condition. Clean off dust or dirt. 

5) Drive tractor back into building under supervision of 
some one who has had experience. 

C. If possible, make study of a tractor while plowing in the 
field, and obtain the following information : 

1) Number of plow bottoms. 

2) Size and type of plow. 

3) Length of furrows. 

4) Width of furrows. 

5) Depth of furrows. 

6) Time required to plow a furrow. 

7) Time required for turning. 



PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY OPERATION 297 

8) Kind and condition of soil. 

9) Acres plowed per hour. 

10) Acres plowed per ten-hour day. 

11) Fuel used and cost per ten-hour day. 

12) Fuel cost per acre. 

13) Lubricant used and cost per ten-hour day. 

14) Lubricant cost per acre. 

15) Labor cost per ten-hour day. 

16) Labor cost per acre. 

17) Depreciation cost per acre. 

18) Interest on investment per acre. 

19) Repair cost per acre. 

20) Total cost per acre. 

Assume the following condition with reference to a one- 
man outfit — operator cost, 50 cents per hour; 10 per cent 
depreciation on original cost of outfit; interest on invest- 
ment at 6 per cent; cost of repairs, 4 per cent; all three 
charged to 100 days' service. 

D. Write a report on this exercise, giving the information 
outlined under A, B and C and also: 

1) Name of tractor. 

2) Where manufactured. 

3) Rated brake H. P. and drawbar H. P. 

4) Number of cylinders in motor. 

5) Arrangement of cylinders. 

6) Make and type of carburetor. 

7) Make and type of magneto. 

8) System of lubrication. 

9) Method of cooling. 

10) Describe the clutch and transmission system. 



CHAPTER XXIX 
Projects in Farm Machinery Repair 

267. The Proper Time for Checking Up Needed Re- 
pairs. The repair and adjustment of machinery is best car- 
ried on during the winter months when the weather is not 
suitable for outdoor work. Especially is this true of the re- 
pairs; the final adjustment must often be done after the ma- 
chine is taken into the field. 

It is best to go over a machine carefully when the work is 
finished for the season and tag all broken or worn parts. By 
so doing, the work of putting the machine in condition for field 
use is much easier. One is always more familiar with the 
condition of the machine just after using it than nearly a year 
later when it is being taken into the field the first time for the 
season. When worn and broken parts are not tagged the 
year before, a careful inspection is very essential. This part 
of the work should be done some weeks before the actual re- 
pair work is to be done and a longer time before the machine 
is needed in the field. This will give a chance to order parts 
needed, which often cannot be obtained from the local dealer. 
This work is best done in the school shop where there are 
plenty of tools and material. Many students can bring old 
implements in from the home farm for overhauling. Gas en- 
gines can be cleaned up, valves ground, and new piston rings 
put in place, the cutter bar on the mower can be straightened 
and the sickle sharpened, and other jobs can be done, a few 
of which are outlined merely to suggest the possibilities along 
this line. Such work is of immediate value in putting the ma- 

298 



PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 



299 



chinery in repair, and the practice is of untold value to every 
student who later is to farm for himself » 

The projects in this chapter are arranged in six groups ac- 
cording to the general type of machine. Additional minor 
groups might be added, but these are the machines in which 
all farmers are interested: First, tillage machinery; second, 



Hand 



Detachable Shin Piece 

Beam 




Moldboard 



Clevis 



Gauge 
Wheel 



Fig. 314. Walking plow. 

planting machinery; third, fertilizer distributors; fourth, har- 
vesting machinery; fifth, belt-driven machinery; sixth, sta- 
tionary engines and tractors. Projects in the repair of only 
one or two machines in each group are outlined. 

268. Repair and Adjustment of Tillage Machinery. 
(Fig. 314.) 

Requirements: To repair and adjust ready for field use the 
chief tillage machines, including plows, harrows, rollers 
and cultivators. 
Tools Needed: It is well to have access to a complete set of 
shop tools. The exact number of tools required will be 
determined by the repairs needed. 
Preliminary Instruction: The plow is the principal imple- 
ment in the preparation of the seed bed. Because it is 



300 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 

simple, it is often neglected and used very inefficiently. 
Plows not cared for are hard to operate, and a poor job of 
work is the result. The same principle holds true to a 
greater or less extent with all other tillage machinery. 

269. Repairing a Walking Plow. (Fig. 315.) 

1) Share — Badly-worn cast-iron shares must be renewed; 



BCAI?IN*i AT 
'THE WING 




HORIZONTAL auction' ~ I ^- VERTICAL SUCTION 

Bottom op Plow ^Side" of Plow 

Fig. 315. Detail showing horizontal and vertical suction. 

steel shares may be sharpened. Provide bearing at 
wing of 3/4" for 10" bottom to 1-1/4" for 16" bottom, 
and vertical suction of 1/8" and horizontal suction of 
1/8" to 1/4", as shown in figure. 

2) Landside — If heel is detachable and worn, renew entire 
landside. 

3) Moldboard — See that moldboard is well bolted to frog. 
If badly worn, renew. 

4) Bracing — Tighten all bolts and brace rods. 

5) Handles — See that handles are tight and rigid thruout. 

6) Beam — See that beam is bolted tightly to the frog. If a 
steel beam; be sure it is not sprung. 

7) Jointer — Renew or sharpen the jointer. Bolt tightly 
to beam. 

8; Gauge Wheel — Renew bearings if badly worn. Bolt 
standard rigidly to the beam. Adjust to proper height. 



PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 301 

270. Walking Plow Adjustment. 

1) Depth of Furrow — Raise or lower clevis hitch vertically. 
For variable soil conditions, regulate by changing wheel 
gauge. 

2) Width of Furrow — Change the clevis hitch in a horizon- 
tal position. Position of beam may be adjusted on some 
plows. It is usually changed to accommodate a different 
number of horses. 

3) Handles — Change height to suit operator. 

4) Jointer — Set so its point is just above the point of the 
share, slightly to the landside of the shin and 1-1/2'' to 2" 
deep into the soil. 

5) Hitch — Plow runs best when hitched to form a straight 
Une from a point on moldboard 2J' from shin thru the 
hitch at beam clevis to a point midway between the tug 
rings at harness. A proper hitch means easy operation 
and less draft for the team. 

271. Sulky and Gang Plows. (Fig. 316.) 

1) Wheel Bearings — If worn, put in new bearings when 
possible. Clean thoroly, repack with heavy grease and 
make adjustments. 

2) Frame Beam and Frog — Tighten all bolts. Straighten 
any part of frame that is twisted. 

3) Levers — Tighten all connections, take up lost motion, 
straighten levers, replace new springs. 

4) Share — Sharpen or replace with new share. 

5) Landside — Renew entire landside if badly worn. Renew 
heel when provided. 

6) Rolling Coulter — Clean bearings and oil. Tighten stand- 
ard rigidly to frame. 



302 



FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 



272. Adjusting Sulky or Gang Plow. 

1) Depth — Change depth by lowering bottom in the frame. 

2) Width of Cut — Change hitch on frame, change landing 
of furrow wheel. 

3) Jointer — Adjust as on a walking plow. 



Front Furrow Whf.f.l Lever 



Land Wheel Lr\i k 



Alxiliary Lever 




Rear 

Furrow Wheel 



Bottom 



Front 
•RRow Axle 



Furrow Wheel 



Fi>oM Bail 



Fig. 316. Gang plow. 



4) Rolling Coulter — If used with a jointer, set ahead of it. 
If used without jointer, adjust to the position of jointer 
when it is used alone and about one-half the depth of 
furrow, depending on the soil. 

5) Wheels — Adjust land wheel to run straight to the front. 
Give the front and rear furrow wheels a slight lead from 
the land. Set rear wheel 1" to 2'' outside of landside of 
plow, 

6) Hitch — Point of hitch can be changed to take more or 
less land; and so the load is carried by wheels. 



PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 30:3 

273. Repair of Peg-Toothed Harrow. (Fig. 317.) 

1) Frames — ^Straighten all bent parts and tighten bolts. 

2) Teeth — Adjust to uniform depth. Re-sharpen worn 
teeth, and renew lost ones. 

3) Levers — Straighten all levers, renew worn parts and 
tighten connections 

Tilting Lever 




Frame 

Fig. 317. Peg-toothed harrow. 

4) Draft Connections — Renew if badly worn. Straighten if 
bent. 

274. Repairing a Disc Harrow. (Figs. 318 and 318-a.) 

1) Frame — See that all bolts are tight and all braces are 
straight and rigid. 

2) Bearings — Clean out bearings by washing with kerosene. 
Replace if worn, pack grease cups and see that grease 
gets to bearings. 

3) Discs — Sharpen discs on regular sharpener or on emery. 

4) Gang Bolts — See that gang bolts are straight and the 
discs are tight on bolts so they will not wobble. 

5) Bumpers — Adjust so they carry end thrust. 



304 



FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 



6) Scrapers — Replace if badly worn. See that they come 
in contact with disc without causing undue friction. 

7) Snubbing Blocks — Adjust so gangs run level. 

8) Levers — Straighten bent levers. Replace worn parts. 

9) Draft Connection — If worn, renew. 

Adjustment — Change angle of disc to increase or de- 



Leve 
Ang 




Fig. 318. Disc harrow. 

crease amount of suction. Weighting is sometimes re- 
sorted to in hard ground to increase the depth. 
275. Repair and Adjustment of Planting Machinery. 

Requirements : To repair and ad j ust ready for field use plant- 
ing machinery such as used in the particular locality. A 
corn planter and drill are outlined. 

Preliminary Instruction: Every planting machine should be 
in first-class repair when taken into the field, to avoid a 
poor stand due to its poor condition. 



PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 305 



276. Repairing a Grain Drill. (Fig. 319.) 
1) Grain Feeds— Clean out old grain and dirt. Examine 
grain feed cup or fluted cylinder, and grain cells. Renew 
badly-worn or broken parts. Examine method of chang- 
ing rate of seeding. 



Levers Bent Backward^ 

Within Easy Reach of 
THE Operator 




Inside 
Draw Bars 



Pivoted 
PitEssuRE Yoke 



Fig. 318-a. Details of construction of disc harrow. 

2) Chains, Drive Shaft and Gears— Trace power from 
wheels thru chains, shaft and gears to feeding device. 
See that there is no lost motion due to loose, broken or 
worn parts. 

3) Openers— Sharpen opener if dull. If disc opener, exam- 
ine the bearings and replace if badly worn. See that 
they are properly lubricated. Adjust springs so enough 
pressure is on openers. 



306 



FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 



4) Seed Tubes — Test seed tubes to see that they do not clog 
easily. 

5) Wheels — If wheels are of wood and are dried out so that 
the tire is loose on the rim, they should be soaked in water 
until swelled tight. The pawls in the hub are an impor- 



Tilting Lever 

Grass Seed Attachment 
Wood or Steel Wheels 




Weight of Frame, Etc., 
Carried on Wheel Hubs 
Not on Axle 



DiscOpeners 



Seed Tube 



Fig. 319. Grain drill. 

tant part of wheels to give positive drive. See that the 
pawls engage and start the seeding device as soon as the 
wheels turn. 

6) Frame and Levers — See that all bolts are drawn up 
tight and the frame is rigid. Examine levers and see 
that they are straight and function properly. 

7) Attachments — See that attachments such as surveying 
device and devices for setting rate of seeding are tight. 
Check their accuracy if they are to be depended upon. 



PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 307 

8) Miscellaneous — See that all covering devices, hitch, 
braces, etc., are in place and properly adjusted. 

277. Adjusting a Grain Drill. Calibration — The prin- 
cipal adjustment on a grain drill is the one for accuracy of 
planting v^hen the indicator is set at different positions on 
the scale. The adjustment is accomplished by calibrating 
the machine. The drill must be calibrated for each kind of 
grain. The method is as follows: 

Set the drill on stands or saw horses so that the wheels 
clear the ground. Put the grain in the hopper, place the in- 
dicator for certain rate of seeding per acre, put paper bags 
under each of the spouts, throw in the clutch and you are 
ready to begin. Turn the drive wheel thru 100 revolutions. 
Weigh the seed caught under each spout. By measuring the 
circumference of drive wheel in feet and multiplying by 100, 
the number of turns, the distance traveled is found. Multiply 
this by the width of seeded strip in feet and the area is ob- 
tained. Knowing the area and the total pounds of seed drilled, 
the rate of drilling is easily obtained. By comparing the rate 
from test with the actual setting of indicator, the accuracy of 
the machine is determined. By making several tests at differ- 
ent settings of indicator, the proper adjustment for a certain, 
rate of planting can be established. Unless a drill is care- 
fully tested, the rate of planting is not definitely known, due 
to the inaccuracy of the indicating device. 

278. Repairing Corn Planter. (Fig. 320.) 

1) Seed Box and Plates — See that a full set of plates is 
available and suitable for planting seed at hand. Ex- 
amine the parts in bottom of seed box and the plates to 
see that they are not worn. Renew parts as needed. 



308 



FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 



2) Sprockets, Chains, Gears and Clutch — Trace the power 
from wheels thru axle, chain, sprockets, drive shaft and 
clutch to the plate. See that there is no lost motion due 
to loose, worn or broken parts. 

3) Openers — See 3 under Drills. 



Underhu 




Open Wheels 



Steel Shoe 



Fig. 320. Corn planter. 

4) Valves — Examine valves in feed shank and see that they 
function properly when the drive wheels are turned. 

5) Frame and Levers — See 6 under Drills. 

6) Check Wire and Trip — See that the check wire is free 
from kinks and in good condition. See that the trip 
works. 

7) Miscellaneous — Examine marker, hitch, etc., and see 
that they are in good condition. 



PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 309 

279. Adjustment of Corn Planter. 

1) Depth — Adjust for proper depth by setting the tongue; 
also, by means of the lever, just in front of the seat. 

2) Width — The width of rows can be adjusted by shifting 
the boxes and shoes as a unit on the frame. Shift the 
position of the wheels on the axle and move the wheel 
scrapers accordingly. 

3) The Drop — the drop is changed by moving the lever to 
point indicating two, three or four grains per hill. 

4) Drilling — Most planters can be adjusted to drill by open- 
ing the valves and holding the trip back. A lever is often 
provided so that the change to drilling can be made from 
the seat. 

5) Accuracy — Proper plates should be selected for the par- 
ticular seed and the accuracy of drop tested before the 
planter is taken into the field. If the plates are of the 
type where one kernel is selected at a time, try out sev- 
eral by taking some kernels of corn and fitting them into 
the spaces. If they do not fit — are too tight or too loose 
— try other plates until one is found that fits fairly well. 
Place this plate in position in box, partially fill it with 
the corn to be planted, place the planter on a stand or 
saw horses, and you are ready for test. Set the lever to 
position of number of grains to be dropped at each hill. 
Trip clutch and turn drive wheel; catch the grains as they 
drop out at each hill and count them. Trip for 100 hills ; 
if lever is set for three grains, it should test at least 90 
per cent accuracy. Out of 100 hills, if there are 60 threes, 
30 twos, 8 ones and 2 fours, a plate should be selected 
with slightly larger openings. The correct selection of 



310 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 

plate is very important from a standpoint of accuracy in 
planting. The careful grading of seed and proper selec- 
tion of plate are big factors in securing a good test. 

280. Repair and Adjustment of Fertilizer Distri- 
buters. 

Requirements: To repair and adjust ready for field use the 
principal fertilizer distributers, including manure spread- 
er, straw spreader, fertilizer and lime drills (Fig. 321). 

Preliminary Instruction: The manure spreader is a machine 
that is found on most farms where there is stock. Straw 
spreaders, fertilizers and limestone drills are becoming 
more common thruout the country. 

281. Repairing Manure Spreader. (Fig. 321.) 

1) Box and Apron — Tighten all bolts in box so that it is 
rigid. Examine apron for broken places or damaged 
chain. Replace broken or worn parts. See that the 
rollers that carry the apron turn easily and offer little 
resistance. 

2) Frame — Tighten all loose parts on the frame of spreader 
and renew all broken parts. 

3) Beater — See that bearings are in first-class condition. 
Tighten the bars and see that the teeth are straight and 
firmly in place. Replace all broken teeth. 

4) Driving Mechanism — Examine carefully the drive chains, 
gears and sprockets that transmit the power from the 
drive wheel to the beater and to the apron. Weak parts 
should be replaced. Adjust chains to proper tightness. 
See that all bolts are drawn up tight. 

5) Wheels — Take off drive wheels and examine the pawls. 
Examine bearings on rear axle and on trucks. 



PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 



311 




3 
C 
c3 



CO 






312 



FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 



6) Miscellaneous — Straighten levers and connecting rods. 
Tighten all nuts and put in new bolts where needed. 

282. Repairing and Adjusting Straw Spreader. (Fig. 
322.) Most straw spreaders are either an attachment for a 
manure spreader or an attachment for a wagon. 

1) Tighten all chains by adjusting idlers, and renew worn 
links. 

2) See that sprockets are centered on wagon wheel. 




Fig. 322. Straw spreader. 



3) Go over entire feeder, tighten bolts and renew broken 
parts. 

4) Straighten levers and see that they work easily. 

5) Follow instructions of manufacturer in making adjust- 
ment. 



PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 313 

283. Repairing a Lime and Fertilizer Sower. 

1) See that feeding device is free from old lime or fertilizer 
and rust. 

2) Renew badly-worn gears, sprockets or chains. 

3) See that adjusting levers work properly. 

4) Examine wheels and axles. 

5) Repair box or hopper if needed. 

6) Renew feeding device if badly worn or broken. 

284. Repair and Adjustment of Harvesting Ma- 
chinery. 

Requirements: To repair and adjust a mower, a binder and 
other harvesting machines such as are used locally. The 
mower and binder are outlined, as they represent the 
two most common harvesting machines thruout the 
country. The tools needed are the same as in previous 
projects. 

Preliminary Instructions: To avoid loss at harvest time, all 
equipment should be in a first-class condition. Harvest 
season is a time when delay may mean a great loss. So 
every farmer should realize the importance of having 
such equipment ready. The best time to inspect har- 
vest machinery is just at the end of the harvest season 
rather than the beginning. If the inspection has been 
properly carried out and parts ordered to take the place 
of broken and worn ones, the work of repair will be very 
simple. 

285. Repairing a Mower. (Fig. 323.) Place the ma- 
chine where there is plenty of room and where all sides are 
accessible. 

Working Instructions: 
1) Align Cutter Bar — Block tongue to normal position of 



314 



FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 



running with inside shoe just floating. Test aUgnment 
by stretching a string from center of pitman bracing thru 
center of knife head bracing to outer side of cutter bar. 
If properly aUgned, the outside end of knife will lead 
string by V for five-foot bars and 1-8/8'' to 1-1/2" for 



Divider Board 




Tilting Lever 



Thrust Bar 



Cutter Bar 



y y / . /•: A 




tman 
Drag Bar Protects Pitman 



Fig. 323. Mower, 

six-foot bars. If not properly aligned, examine machine 
for special provision for alignment and make proper ad- 
justment. 

2) Aligning Guards — Remove blade and sight along guards, 
or use a straight-edge to detect the ones that are high and 
the ones that are low. Drive guards that are out of 
alignment back into place by a sharp blow with a ham- 
mer. 

3) Adjusting Cutter-Bar Clips — Examine knife bar to see 
that it is straight ; then put it in place. The knife should 
have little play, and the clips should fit snugly. Adjust 



PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 315 

all clips by tapping each with hammer until it begins to 
tighten; then loosen it, and begin on the next. When all 
are adjusted, tighten them. 

4) Putting on New Guards — Bolt new guards in place 
where old ones are damaged. If the new guard brings 
the ledger plate too high, remedy this by putting pieces 
of tin between the guard and the bar. 

5) Shoes — Examine both the outside and inside shoes on 
cutter bar. If parts are badly worn, replace them. See 
that they are adjusted for proper height. 

6) Knife Sections — Broken or badly-worn knife sections can 
be easily removed by placing the vertical edge of bar on 
an anvil or heavy piece of iron, with a square, straight 
corner. Strike the back of the section with a hammer, 
making it cut the rivet off. Use soft steel rivets of proper 
size for putting on new sections. Test the knife to see 
that sections center properly. The sections are properly 
centered if each is directly under a guard when the pit- 
man is at either end of its stroke. Examine to see if a 
centering device is provided on machine. When steel 
pitmans are used, they are usually made adjustable for 
length. This makes centering easy. 

7) Pitman — Adjust both the knife head and wrist pin bear- 
ing to secure the least amount of lost motion. 

8) Gears — If badly worn, make adjustment so they will work 
properly where possible. If gears are badly worn, replace 
with new ones. 

9) Bearings — Examine all bearings for wear. Free them of 
all grit, dirt and vegetable matter. Lubricate all parts 
with new oil. 



316 



FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 



10) Drive Wheels — Take up all end play by adjustable collar 
or washers. Examine pawls for wear. Some are re- 
versible, making possible longer use. Renew springs if 
weak. 

11) Miscellaneous — Tighten all nuts, straighten levers, and 
see that all bolts, cotter keys, etc., are in place. Replace 
worn parts where needed. 



Reel Slats 




Butt Adiusting Lever 



Packer 

Bevel Gear Bind.ng Attachment 
/ 



Grain Wheei / Elevator Chain _^ 

Platform . Tw,neC-n 

Drive Wheei 



~ Bundle Garner 



Fig. 324. Grain binder. 

286. Repairing and Adjusting a Binder. (Fig.324.) 

Practically all the suggestions for the mower also apply to 

the binder with the following additions: 
1) Canvases — See that all rollers work easily, are in good 
repair, and are properly aligned. Anything wrong with 
the rollers will cause trouble with the canvases. Test 
the frame of the machine (either by means of a square or 
by measuring the diagonals) to see that the canvases are 
properly squared to it. If canvases are not squared, 
trouble will result. Replace all broken slats and straps 
on canvases with new ones. 



PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 317 

2) Chains and Sprockets — Replace badly-worn or broken 
sprockets. See that they are aligned by sighting along 
the face. Adjust chain tightener so there will not be too 
much play. 

3) Reel — Renew slats if broken. Examine bearings. If 
they are badly worn, renew them. Take up all lost mo- 
tion in reel levers. 

4) Gears and Bearings — Examine all gears for wear, and if 
badly worn, replace with new ones. Adjust to mesh 
where possible. Renew bearings where badly worn. 

5) Binder Attachment — The binding attachment is the 
most complicated device on the binder. Replace all 
broken or badly-worn parts. See that the tying device is 
timed to work properly in tying bundles. Use instruc- 
tions for particular machine furnished by manufacturer. 

287. Belt-Driven Machinery. 

Requirements: To repair and adjust at least one belt-driven 
machine. It may be a threshing machine as outlined, or 
another type of machine. The feed mills, silage cut- 
ters and corn shellers, all come in this class. The tools 
needed are the same as in previous projects. 

Preliminary Instruction : A separator that has not been care- 
fully overhauled will cause loss of time and waste of 
grain. This is a job that should be done some weeks be- 
fore the threshing season is on, in order that if there is 
need of any parts, they can be secured and installed 
without causing a delay. The same general principles 
as outlined for overhauling a separator apply to other 
belt-driven machines. It is always a good idea to study 
carefully the instruction books furnished by the manu- 



318 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 

facturer before beginning to repair or adjust any part of a 
belt-driven machine. The points suggested here under 
working instruction can then be carried out with a much 
greater degree of intelhgence. 
288. Repairing a Grain Separator. (Fig. 325.) 
Working Instruction: 
1) CyUnder — Renew all badly-worn, bent or otherwise dam- 
aged teeth. Tighten all loose teeth, and see that the 
cylinder is firmly keyed to the shaft. If cylinder bearings 
are worn, they can be made to fit snugly by removing 
shims. If the bearings are badly worn, they should be 
re-babbitted or new bushings put in. (See instructions 
on babbitting at end of this exercise.) Examine the shafts 
for rough spots. If necessary, smooth them up with a 
fine file and emery cloth. After the cylinder shaft and 
bearing are in first-class condition, the cylinder should be 
carefully balanced before the bearings are adjusted. This 
is necessary when a number of new teeth have been 
added. To balance the cylinder, provide two saw horses 
or other suitable stands to support the ends of the cylin- 
der shaft. Level up the supports and place on them 
pieces of smooth steel, on which the cylinder is to rest. 
Place the cylinder on supports and allow it to revolve. 
Mark the top of cylinder where it came to rest and roll it 
over again. If it comes to rest in the same position as 
before, it will indicate that the opposite side is heavy. Pro- 
vision is made on some cylinders to counterbalance this 
by driving slugs of lead into the holes in the ends of cylin- 
der. Where no provision is made, new teeth can be put 
in on the opposite side, or wedges can be driven in under 



PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 319 

the center band. When cyUnder is put back in place, 
adjust to the bearings so there is no lost motion. It 
should make a snug fit, but should not bind. Avoid too 
much end play. The thickness of wrapping paper at 
each end of cylinder will be sufficient. 

2) Concaves — Replace badly-worn concave teeth. Be care- 
ful to avoid breaking the concave bars. Adjust the con- 
caves so the teeth are centered as far as the cylinder 
teeth are concerned. If the concave and cylinder teeth 
come closer together than 1/8'^ cracking of grain is liable 
to result. Teeth that are out of line or bent should be 
brought back into place by the use of a hammer. In- 
spect the device for raising and lowering the concaves. 
If badly worn, put in new parts. 

3) Separating Grates — See that all bolts are tight and there 
is no loss motion. Straighten all bent rods or bars. See 
that all parts work without undue friction. 

4) Feeding Attachment — Inspect the frame for looseness, 
badly-worn or split parts. Tighten all bolts and screws. 
Tighten the carrier chain; see that slats or canvas is in 
good repair. Examine band cutter knife; replace it if it 
is broken or badly worn. See that all bolts are tight and 
bearings are in good condition on retarder and shaking 
feed bottom. 

4) Beaters and Apron — See that there is no play or lost mo- 
tion in the beater. If the blades are wood, replace those 
that are split or badly worn. See that there are no 
rough surfaces on the blades. See that apron or check 
board works freely. 



320 



FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 



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'^ i a '^' fl ^H 

o X< f2 ^ s <t2 



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,1111 



PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 321 

5) Racks — Inspect the racks for broken slats. See that the 
bearings are tight. Replace or adjust worn links and 
pitmans. 

6) Conveyor — See that all parts are tight to avoid wasting 
grain. Renew metal if it is badly rusted. 

7) Screens — See that frames are in good shape. If screens 
are damaged, renew them. Examine the shoe to see that 
the castings that carry the screens are in good condition 
and fastened to the shoe. See that bearings and pitmans 
are in good shape. 

8) Fan — Inspect the fan housing, the bearings and the 
blades. Replace worn parts where needed. 

9) Grain Augers and Elevators — Examine the auger troughs 
and elevator housing, and all bearings. Replace badly- 
worn parts. See that the chain is in good condition ; also, 
that the chain tightener is in good working order. 

10) Stacker — See that fan, fan housing and bearings are in 
first-class shape. 

11) See that all adjustments are made to insure efficient 
operation. 

Note: Bushing can usually be secured to take care of 
badly-worn bearings on power-driven machines, but in some 
cases, babbitting must be resorted to. The following on bab- 
bitting will be of interest under such conditions: 

289. Babbitting Machine Bearing Boxes. Machine 
bearings become loose with wear. If the bearings are made 
in two parts in the form of a split box, adjustments may be 
made to tighten the bearing until it is practically worn out. 
If the bearing is in one piece in the form of a solid box, little, 
if anything, can be done when it is worn to tighten it except 



322 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 

to reline or refill it. The process of repairing a bearing by 
pouring in new metal is called babbitting. 

Babbitt is a soft metal consisting of one part of copper, two 
parts antimony and twenty-two parts tin, melted together. 
Some of the cheaper grades of babbitt contain some lead and, 
sometimes, a little zinc. 

290. Babbitting a Solid Bearing. Chip or melt out all 
of the old babbitt and clean out the retaining holes. Warm 
the box to prevent the babbitt cooling too rapidly when it is 
poured. This may be done by holding the bearing in the fire 
or by placing a hot iron against it. Clean the shaft and place 
it in line in the bearing, first wrapping one thickness of 
writing paper about the, shaft just the length of the bearing, 
and fastening it by winding twine about it in a spiral shape. 
The paper will prevent too tight a bearing, and the space occu- 
pied by the twine will form oil grooves. Close up the bearing 
at each end by placing a heavy cardboard over the shaft at 
each end and puttying up the holes or filling them with soft 
clay. Reserve the oil hole to pour in the babbitt, or, if it is too 
small, drive a wooden plug into it clear to the shaft and form 
a funnel-shaped opening at one end of the bearing with clay. 

Heat the babbitt in an iron ladle until it burns or chars a 
stick, and gently pour it, if necessary, by means of a funnel, 
thru the hole reserved for the purpose, first making a few vent 
holes thru the end protections with a wire. When the bab- 
bitt is set, and before it thoroly cools, remove the end protec- 
tions, the plug that fills the oil hole and the shaft. Wipe out 
the hole formed by the shaft to remove the burned twine and 
any foreign matter, and the bearing will be ready for use 
when the babbitt is cold. 



PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 323 

291. Babbitting a Split-Box Bearing. Place the shaft 
in the lower part of the box which forms the bearing and 
block it in position. Place liners on the box to touch the 
shaft the full length, first cutting two or three notches on the 
liner next to the shaft thru which the babbitt can run from 
the upper half of the box to the lower. Bolt the top part of 
the box in position, stop the ends and pour the babbitt. When 
the babbitt is set, drive a cold chisel between the boxes to 
break the babbitt formed in the notches of the liner, bevel 
the edges of the babbitt next to the shaft, and cut oil grooves 
in the babbitt of each half of the box with a diamond point or 
round nose chisel. These grooves should cross on the oil hole 
and run to the ends of the box to form carriers for oil. 

A split box may also be babbitted by pouring the babbitt 
on the shaft when placed in the lower half of the box only. 
When the babbitt reaches the level of the top of the half box, 
place the liners in position, then the upper half of the box, and 
pour it full. 

292. Scraping a Babbitted Bearing. With the split 
bearing, it is nearly always necessary to fit the bearing to the 
shaft by scraping. This is done by coating the surface of the 
shaft with lampblack and oil, or Prussian blue, and adjust- 
ing it in the bearing; then revolve the shaft. Open the 
bearing and note if it formed a good contact with the shaft; 
if it only touched the shaft at spots, scraping is necessary. 
Scrape the high places in bearing with regular bearing scra- 
pers or with a triangular file that has been ground for this pur- 
pose, until practically the entire surface of bearing is in con- 
tact with shaft. 



324 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 

293. Repair and Adjustment of a Motor. (Fig. 326.) 
Requirements: To repair and adjust a gasoline engine, either 

a simple type or a tractor, truck or automobile engine. 
The tools needed are the same as in previous projects. 
Preliminary Instructions: The gas engine is the most com- 
mon type of mechanical motive power on the farm. 
Every boy needs to know how to make the simple repairs 
and adjustments, because the gas engine that is not in 
good adjustment will waste fuel, will develop only a frac- 
tion of its power, and will waste the time of the operator. 
First become thoroly familiar with the engine before try- 
ing to repair it. Study it carefully, analyze its troubles 
before trying to remedy them. In the work of disman- 
tling and putting an engine in shape for operating, the 
workman must observe extreme care to avoid breaking 
or marring any part of the machine. Do not use pliers 
where a wrench should be used, nor a screw-driver where 
a cold chisel is best suited. Be careful not to tear or de- 
stroy the packing. Do not screw the coupling on fuel 
line too tight, as the threads are liable to be stripped. 
Clean all parts as they are removed. Place small parts, 
as nuts and screws, in a box provided for that purpose. 
Where timing gears are removed, see that they are marked 
so they will be meshed properly when re-assembled. Se- 
cure instruction book on engine as furnished by manu- 
facturer. 

294. Overhauling an Engine. The method of proce- 
dure will vary slightly with different engines, but the follow- 
ing steps will indicate the general procedure : 

1) Disconnect the wiring. 



PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 325 

2) Remove the magneto. 

3) Remove the igniter block or spark plug. 

4) Remove the cylinder head. 

5) Scrape the carbon from the face of the cylinder head. 



EXHAUST VALVE. 
SPRING WASHER 



EXHAUST valve: LEVER 
VALVE ROD CONNECTOR 



lONITOR TRIP ROLLER 
ICINITQR TRIP CLAMP 



SIGHT FEED 
LUBRICATOR 







Fig, 326. Gasoline engine. 



326 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 

6) Remove the valves and free them from all carbon. 

7) Note the valve seats to see if they are free from carbon 
and not pitted. 

8) If valves are in poor condition, they should be ground as 
follows: (a) Apply a little coarse valve-grinding com- 
pound to the valve seat, put the valve in place and grind 
it by inserting the point of the screw-driver in the slot, or 
use a valve-grinding tool, and grind by revolving back 
and forth about one-fourth turn, exerting a little pres- 
sure. Lift th e valve occasionally to reseat it. Continue 
the process until the rough surface on the valve is re- 
moved, (h) Apply a little fine valve-grinding compound 
to the valve seat and repeat the process as outlined under 
(a) . Continue process of grinding until the valves are all 
seated, (c) Clean the valve and valve seat to prevent 
any compound from entering the cylinder. 

9) Disconnect the connecting rod from the crank shaft, and 
remove the piston from cylinder, (a) Clean all carbon 
from the piston, (h) Examine all piston rings; note if 
any are stuck or broken, (c) If necessary to put on new 
rings, use three or four thin pieces of tin with which to 
slip on the rings. Rings are very brittle and must be 
handled with care. 

10) Note the wall of the cylinder to see that it is not scored. 

11) Remove all oiling devices and see that oil or grease passes 
thru to the points lubricated. 

12) Examine crank-shaft bearings. 

13) Remove governor. Examine the spring. 

14) Remove push rods and lever. 

15) Examine cam shaft and gears. 



PROJECTS IN FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 327 

16) Disconnect pipe line from carburetor to fuel tank. See 
that it is not clogged. 

17) Remove carburetor or mixing valve and examine the fol= 
lowing points: (a) Type of air valve, if any; (6) how the 
gas is drawn to carburetor; (c) how it is controlled at the 
carburetor; (//) screw out the needle valve and note its 
condition. 

18) Clean out any dirt or other material that may be col- 
lected in the cooling system. 

19) Reassemble the engine in the reverse order in which it 
was dismantled. 

20) Adjust the engine by timing the valves and the ignition 
and setting the governor for rated speed. 

General Questions to Answer in Report on this Exercise: 

1) Does the engine have high- or low- tension ignition ? 

2) Draw a diagratm of the wiring. 

3) Why is insulation provided on the wire? 

4) Is the fixed or the movable electrode insulated on the 
igniter block? Why? 

5) If a spark plug is used, draw a sketch showing its con= 
struction. 

6) How far apart are the spark plug points? 

7) Why are the points on the spark plug separated and 
those on the igniter block brought together? 

8) Why is it necessary to clean the motor cylinder occa- 
sionally? 

9) Why grind the valves? 

10) What causes carbon to collect in the cylinder? 

11) How is the carbon best removed? 

12) What happens if a piston ring is broken or stuck? 



328 FARM MACHINERY REPAIR 

13) What happens if the valves are not seating properly? 

14) What happens if the oil line is stopped up? 

15) What happens if bearings are too loose? 

16) What happens when bearings are too tight? 

17) What are shims? 

18) What happens if the governor spring gets weak? 

19) What happens if the governor sticks? 

20) What is the result if the valve stem sticks? 

21) What causes the valves to open too late or too early? 

22) About when should the valves open and close on a small 
stationary engine? 

23) What happens if the fuel pipe is partially clogged? 

24) What is the effect when the air valve is closed? 

25) What is the result if the carburetor is not fastened to the 
intake manifold with an air-tight joint? 

26) The feed to carburetors on most tractors and automo- 
biles is controlled by means of a float. What happens if 
the float becomes soaked full of gasoline? How remedied? 

27) What is the effect of using dirty water in the cooling 
system? 



PART VI 

Belts and belting 

chapter xxx 

Kinds of Belts and Belt Laces 

295. Methods of Connecting Machines. There are 
three common methods of connecting machines — (1) by shaft, 
known as direct-connected ; (2) by gear wheels, the one on the 
driving machines being known as the driver and the one on 
the driven machine being known as the follower, and (3) by 
belts, in which case the names of the machines are those given 
when gears are used as connectors. 

296. Four Kinds of Belts. There are four common 
forms of belts — chain, canvas, rubber and leather. Chain 
belts, except for slight wear in link joints, remain constant in 
length; hence, need no tightening as they grow old. The 
other three materials named, however, stretch, and, conse- 
quently, belts made from them need tightening from time to 
time to prevent their slipping. The usual m'ethod of tight- 
ening is to cut the belt, remove a piece and fasten the ends 
together. 

Canvas, rubber and leather belts may be cemented to- 
gether. However, the result with canvas belts is not very 
satisfactory. When rubber cement is used, a rubber belt, if 
not too old, may be cemented successfully. However, the 
method of fastening the ends of a belt is applicable princi- 
pally to leather belts. 

329 



330 



BELTS AND BELTING 




297. Cement Splice. The most satisfactory splice is 
one which keeps the belt at the joint the same in shape and 
general conditions as at any other point. Such a splice is 
made by squaring the ends (Fig. 327), and then carefully 

dressing the joining surface, as 

indicated in Fig. 328, making 

the thickness at the squared 

end as thin as possible — a 
FIG. 327. Squaring a belt. ^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ 

A cement splice can easily be made without removing belt 
from pulleys. Tighten belt with a belt clamp (Fig. 329), fit- 
ting it squarely on the belt. 

The length of the splice should be 1'' greater than the 
width of the belt, up to 
12'', which is regarded as 
the maximum length for 
splicing a belt, no matter 
how wide it is. When the 
clamp has pulled the belt to the desired tension, cut 
one end to make the lap V longer than the width of 
the belt. Lay the end of the belt on a board, the end 

of the two coincid- 
ing, and plane the 
lap j oint with a 
sharp, small plane 

until it has the shape 
Fig. 329. Belt clamped for gluing. ^-^^^^ -^ p-^^ ^^S. 

298. Cementing Belt. The surfaces may be joined 
with any good belt cement procurable at leather and harness 
shops. Tack the belt at the joint down to a board, and then 




Fig. 328. Tapering for glue-joint. 





KINDS OF BELTS AND BELT LACES 331 

securely clamp it to the board to dry for at least twenty-four 
hours (Fig. 330). When the clamps are removed and the 
tacks withdrawn, the belt is ready for service. The particular 
advantage of this splice is that it forms a continuous belt with 
no extensions to interfere with smooth-running. 

A canvas belt is usually 
laced, altho it may be 
cement-spliced. If so, how- 
ever, the joint should be 
Fig. 330. A glue-joint in clamps. cut, as shown in Fig. 331. 

299. Laced Joints. These are common for leather belts 
up to 6'' to 10" in width. A laced joint is made by calcu- 
lating the length desired and cutting the belt a little short of 
this length to allow for stretching. 

300. The Process of Lacing. Projects in belt-lacing 
may be selected from the practical problems of the farm as 
belts need tightening. It will be 

well to precede the first lacing of 
a belt in service by the lacing to- 
gether of two scrap pieces of belt. Fig. 331. Joint on can- 
Holes are punched in both ends of 

the belt. Thru these is drawn a lace, usually a strip of 
untanned hide known as rawhide, in some manner to fasten 
the two ends securely together and to permit the lacing to 
pass over the pulleys with as little thumping and wearing as 
possible. Laced joints are usually classed as single-cross- 
laced and double-cross-laced, of which the former is the 
most used except for heavy belts. 

Single-cross lacing gets its name from the fact that a single 



332 BELTS AND BELTING 

strand of lacing, or whang, joins the holes punched to receive 
it, and, also, because these strands cross each other on the 
side opposite the pulley but once, as shown in Fig. 332. 

Patent Belt Fastenings. Many patented belt fastenings 
are on the market. Some of them are very good, and most of 
them can be applied in less time than it takes to lace a belt. 
The pattern which is easily applied and removed consists of a 
series of metal loops extending thru each end of the belt, thru 
which a rawhide stick is passed (Fig. 337). 



CHAPTER XXXI 
Projects in Lacing Belts 

301. Single-Cross Lacing ; One Row of Holes Punched 
on Each End. (Fig. 332.) 
Tools and Stock: A 6" leather belt or (for practice) two short 
pieces of 6" belting, 56'' of lace, belt punch, square and 
knife. 
Note: A narrower belt can be laced by modifying the fol- 
lowing instructions accordingly: 

Working Instructions: Square the ends of the belt to make 
its length 1" less than that calculated or measured. 



5 23 21 

17 19 




8 6 4 2 18 20 
10 12 14 16 24 ^22 



Outride 



Pulley 5ioe 



Fig. 332. Single-cross lacing; one row of holes. 

Square a pencil line across each end of the belt 1" from 
the end and punch 3/16" holes to dimensions given in A, 
Fig. 333. Point the end of the lace and pass it thru hole 
00 (Fig. 332) from the outside, leaving 1/2" of the end 
protruding. Pass the lace up thru hole and down thru 
hole 1, then across to hole 2 and over to hole 3, con- 
tinuing to pass the lace down thru the odd-numbered 
holes from the outside of the belt and up thru the even- 

333 



334 



BELTS AND BELTING 



numbered holes. Continue the lacing, passing thru the 
holes in rotation, finally returning to hole No. 1, which is 
also marked 15 and 25. The lacing will now be double. 
Care must be taken to pass the lacing back to 7 the first 
time it comes thru 8 in order to get it double at the end. 










b 






o 




o 


o 




o 




O 




o 


o 





Fig. 333. Position of holes for various laces. 



It should be tight and straight. In passing thru a hole 
the second time or the third, as in case of hole No. 1, use 
an awl to enlarge the hole slightly. After passing the end 
of the lace thru hole No. 1, coax it thru holes and 00, 
leaving the end extending with the first one. Pull these 
ends thru and level with the belt, cut half-way thru the 
lacing at an angle with the lace. This forms a notch in 
each end of the lace to hold it from slipping thru to the 
pulley side of the belt. 



PROJECTS IN LACING BELTS 



335 



302. Single - Cross Lacing ; Two Rows of Holes 
Punched on Each End. 

Note: The instructions given below are for a 6'^ belt. It 
will be noted by referring to Fig. 334 that the lacings on the 
pulley side of the belt do not lap one on another. The holes 
being staggered, cause the lacings to lie singly, which is a de- 
cided advantage in overcoming noise in running, and wear. 




8// €>// 4//,i^ // 24//221 
10 12 14 IG 18 20 

OUTJIDC 




Fig. 334. Single-cross lacing; two rows of holes. 

Working Instructions: Punch two rows of holes with a belt 
punch parallel to the end of the belt. The diameter 
should be about two-thirds the size of the lace to be 
used. The first row is placed about 3/4'' from the end of 
the belt, and the second row about 1-1/2" from the end. 
In case the belt is old, these distances are increased 
slightly. The holes are from 3/4" to 1" apart with one- 
half this distance separating the end holes from the 
edges of the belt. Determine these outside distances first 
and then divide up the intervening space so that the 
distances between points will be as nearly as possible 
3/4" (B, Fig. 333). Beginning with the end points on 
the first row from the end of the belt, punch a hole at 
every other point. Only one-half the number of holes 



336 BELTS AND BELTING 

may be used, as indicated in C, Fig. 333. This will make 
a less substantial lacing. To lace the belt, place a lace 
thru the middle holes from the pulley side — holes 1 and 
2 (Fig. 334) — allowing the two ends of the lace extending 
on the side of the belt opposite the pulley to be as nearly 
as possible the same length. The end which extends 
thru hole No. 2 is put thru hole No. 3, then thru holes 
Nos. 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8, passing thru the first row of holes on 
one part of the belt and thru the second row on the other 
part; then to No. 9, crossing the belt joint, and back 
thru holes Nos. 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14; then thru hole No. 
15, and, finally, thru a tie hole. No. 16, when the end 
should be cut off about 3/8'' from the belt. The second end 
of the lacing should follow a similar course, and, upon its 
return, should go thru hole No. 2, and, finally, thru the 
tie hole, No. 30. Note that on the side opposite the pul- 
ley, the large crosses or plies are over the short ones. 
This is desirable to reduce friction and wear. Always 
pull the lacing taut, but do not buckle the belt. 

303. Double-Cross Lacing ; One or Two Rows of Holes 
Punched on Each End. For this problem, two laces rather 
than one must be used. It is not deemed necessary to give 
detailed instructions for a double-cross lacing, as the instruc- 
tions given for Problem 1 and Problem 2 apply, except as in- 
dicated below. 

Double-cross lacing is similar to single-cross lacing except 
that two strands of lace are drawn thru each hole and that 
the holes are spaced twice as far apart across the belt. It is 
necessary that the two strands be drawn equally tight. 

This method of lacing a belt is quicker than the single- 



PROJECTS IN LACING BELTS 



337 



cross lacing, but is more bulky and, consequently, is noisier 
and causes more vibration. It is particularly adaptable to 
the canvas belt because it does not weaken the material as the 
single-cross lace does, since there are only half as many holes. 
These should be punctures rather than cut holes, to still fur- 
ther preserve the strength of the material. 

304. The Wire Belt Lacing. Wire lacing is now gen- 
erally used. It is strong, and the strands are not as large as 




2 16 18 
24 22 20 



Outside 



Pulley Side 



Fig. 335. Wire lacing. 

rawhide lacing. The holes are placed nearer the ends of the 
belt and nearer together, also. The end holes are about 1/4" 
from the edge of the belt, and the remaining holes about 1/4" 
apart. The row of holes is about 5/16" from the end of the 
belt. 

A No. 18 soft copper wire may be used for lacing. If it is 
hard, it can be annealed by heating it to red and plunging in 
water. 

There are now several good makes of patented wire lacing 
on the market. These are made up from several metals in a 
proportion which will give a maximum degree of service. 
Generally, they will be found superior to the copper wire. 
When using patented wire lacing, care should be taken to f ol- 



338 



BELTS AND BELTING 



low the directions which are given on the box in which it 
comes. The size and length of lacing should be selected ac- 
cording to the width of the belt. 

When lacing, start at hole No. 1 and pull one-half the wire 
thru. Then, using the end extending on the pulley side, lace 
as indicated by Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., in Fig. 335, returning thru 
No. 15. Now, use the other end which is protruding on the 
outside of the belt thru hole No. 2, and pass it thru 16, 17, 18, 
etc., returning to 25. The ends are now in the same holes, 




ThI5 15 Tt-IE 5am E 

A3 Other 3ide 



Either 5idc Is Pulley 5ide: 

Fig. 336. The Annan lacing. 



but in opposite directions. To fasten the ends, make a small 
hole with a nail, as shown by No. 26, and pass both ends thru 
this. Make another small hole and pull the wire which is 
now on the pulley side up on the outside. Cut both ends 
about 1/2'' from the surface of the belt. Make square hooks 
on the ends of the wires and clinch them thru the belt in a 
similar manner to that indicated for the hinge lace in Fig. 
337. 

Pliers are used for pulling the wire thru when lacing. It is 
better to take hold of the wire at the extreme end so as to 



PROJECTS IN LACING BELTS 



339 



avoid nicking it in order to get the maximum durability in the 
lacing. 

305. The Annan Lacing. This lacing (named after the 
man who designed it) is very satisfactory, and has the advan- 
tage of making the belt reversible on the pulley if necessary, 
as the lacings on both sides are the same. Besides, the lacings 
do not cross; thus, the disadvantage of a double thickness of 
lace is avoided. Fig. 336 shows the steps in making the 
lacing. 

Start the lace as for the single-cross lacing, and continue by 



Metal Locsp 




Rawhide Stick - 

Fig. 337. Hinged belt lacing with wire hooks. 

following thru holes as numbered, fastening the last end of the 
belt at hole 21. 

306. The Hinge Belt Lacing. Hinge lacing consists of 
using practically the same layout of holes as described for the 
single-cross lacing, but the lace is brought between the edges 
of the belt where the ends come together and thru the next 
hole from the opposite side of the belt. In this manner, the 
plies form a sort of a hinge between the belt ends. They tend 
to chafe at this point, however, and, consequently, have a 
short life; therefore, this lacing is no longer popular. Fig. 
337 shows method of lacing. 



340 



BELTS AND BELTING 



307. Belt-Hook Joint. Belt hooks are obtainable in 
various sizes and shapes. Some are made to the required 
shape and are inserted into slits made in the ends of the belt, 
while others are bent to shape and fitted, as shown in Fig. 
338. 




Fig. 338, Wire hooks used in lacing„ 



PART VII 

Farm Home Lighting and Sanitary 

equipment 

chapter xxxii 

Farm Lighting and Farmhouse Heating 

308. Necessity for Good Light. During the long win- 
ter nights, those on the farm who would spend a part of the 
evening in reading the current events of the day, studying 
the various farm problems, and planning for the next year's 
work, feel the need of a modern lighting system. On farms 
where there are boys and girls in school and where they are 
required to prepare lessons at night, there should be the best 
lights possible. Shortsightedness in school children is a very 
common defect, which increases with age. It is due princi- 
pally to poor school room and home lighting. 

A good lighting system improves the sanitary condition in 
the home and makes for better health and higher efficiency. 
The farmer should give a great deal of throught and attention 
to the proper lighting of his buildings. The dairy farmer, 
especially, should have his house and barns well lighted. A 
well-lighted barn and dairy makes possible the production of 
a higher quality of products, makes work more pleasant and 
decreases the danger from fires, thus reducing the insurance 
rate. 

309. The Cheapest Light. Probably the old-fashioned 
flat-wick kerosene lamp is the cheapest from the standpoint 

341 



342 LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT 

of cost of fuel. This is not true when one considers the cost 
of operation, however. Again, a consideration of the poor 
quahty of the light produced by this lamp, its effect on the 
eyes, its danger, and the fact that no workman can do his best 
work under poor lighting conditions, makes this pioneer 
means of home-lighting an expensive one. 

The kerosene tubular lamp is an improvement over the 
flat-wick type in the amount of illumination, especially when 
it is provided with a mantle which improves the quality and 
increases the amount of light produced. 

310. A More Modern Lighting Plant. The farmer 
who would install a truly modern lighting system in his honje 
has four kinds of plants from which to make his selection, 
namely, the electric, acetylene, gasoline gas and Blau gas 
plants. 

311. Electric Lighting Plants. (Fig. 339.) There are 
definite advantages that the electric light has over other forms 
of lighting that are recognized by every one. It is clean, safe* 
its cost is not prohibitive, and it does not make the air impure. 

Where the power for electric lights can be secured at a rea- 
sonable price from power-distribution lines passing the farm, 
the situation is ideal. Many farmers do not care to be bur- 
dened with the chore of looking after a lighting plant. 

Until recent years, there were few unit plants on the mar- 
ket; that is, an engine and generator built together. Most 
of the generators were formerly belt-driven by a small engine 
that could be easily used for some other purpose. There is 
a number of unit plants on the market that are arranged 
with a belt pulley for power purposes. Some farmers use a 
power windmill to drive the generator. 



FARM LIGHTING AND HEATING 



343 



In the installation of a small low-voltage electric plant, be 
sure that all wire is of ample size. The mistake is often made 
of using the same size wire as used in wiring city residences 
where a higher voltage is used. All wiring should be prop- 
erly inspected to see that it meets all insurance require- 
ments. The National Board of Fire Underwriters of Chicago 
will provide rules for this work. 

In operating a small electric plant, pay especial attention 




Fig. 339. Farm electric plant. 

to the care of the storage batteries. The upkeep and replace- 
ment cost of the storage battery is the most expensive item in 
the cost of operating an electric plant. 

312. Acetylene Lighting Plants. Many farmers pur- 
chase the acetylene light plant because it is cheaper to oper- 



344 



LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT 



ate than the electric plant and requires less attention. Most 
farmers like the outdoor type of plant best, because it is safe, 
easily charged, easily cleaned out, and where a 100-pound 
capacity plant is secured, it does not require re-charging 
of tener than three or four times during the year. Any acety- 
lene plant that is constructed or located so that the gas will 
escape into a closed room is dangerous. Acetylene gas is a 




Fig. 339-a. Gasoline gas generator. 

little more dangerous than gasoline; both must be handled 
with great care. 

313. Gasoline Gas Lights. Most of the gasoline equip- 
ments are either of the small portable-lamp type or the one by 
which the gas is piped thru small tubes to the individual lamp. 
These types of gasoline lamps are objectionable from an in- 
surance standpoint. Only where the gas is produced outside 
of the building (Fig. 339-a) and piped in like ordinary city gas, 
is the gasoline system really safe. The greatest danger of 
gasoline lights comes from taking gasoline inside the house. 

From a standpoint of economy, the gasoline gas lamps are 
really cheaper than either acetylene or electric lamps. 



FARM LIGHTING AND HEATING 345 

314. Blau Gas Lights. Blau gas is an oil gas that is 
liquified under high pressure. It is freed from all poisonous 
gases and is practically non-explosive. It is sold in tubes 
similar to presto-lite — twenty pounds of gas to the tube. The 
light produced by Blau gas is quite satisfactory and not pro- 
hibitive in price. 

315. Farmhouse Heating. A well-heated house makes 
for comfortable living. It has been only during rather recent 
years that much development has been made in farmhouse 
heating. Many progressive farmers are now installing sys- 
tems of heating that will maintain an even temperature thru- 
out the house, and provide an abundance of fresh air. Heat- 
ing and ventilation go hand-in-hand. 

The modern heating system is located in the basement. It 
keeps the litter and dirt from the main floors, which are diffi- 
cult to keep clean when fuel and ashes are handled over them 
in caring for a stove. 

316. The Hot- Air System. There are two types of hot- 
air systems found on the market. One is the pipeless furnace, 
which is essentially a special type of stove located in the base- 
ment and surrounded by a jacket which carries the heat to 
the rooms above. A down shaft is provided to keep the air in 
circulation. This type of furnace can be easily installed in 
any home already built that is provided with a basement or 
cellar. The other type of hot-air plant is provided with large 
pipes that carry the hot air direct to the various rooms. These 
pipes, or ''leaders", as they are sometimes called, must run as 
direct to the rooms to be heated as possible, and they should 
be wrapped with asbestos to prevent loss of heat. A house 
can be heated more quickly with hot air than with water or 



346 LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT 

steam, but it will cool off more quickly when the fires die 
down. During extremely cold, windy weather, it is difficult 
with a hot-air system to heat rooms on the side of a house 
from which the wind is blowing. 

317. Steam and Hot-Water Systems. The steam- 
heating system can be installed as a single-pipe or a two-pipe 
system. The hot- water heating is a two-pipe system. The 
two systems are quite similar as far as installation is con- 
cerned, and can be installed fairly easily in a house already 
built. The hot-water system works on the principle of water 
being lighter when hot than when cold. The heated water 
rises to the various radiators, the heat is given off in the 
rooms, and the water at a lower temperature flows back to the 
boiler. Care must be observed in installing the pipes to get 
proper circulation. 

Most steam systems are for low-pressure steam. The 
steam is generated in the boiler; it rises thru the pipes to the 
radiators, where it loses its heat, and is condensed and flows 
back to the boiler. In the one-pipe system, the condensed 
steam flows back to the boiler thru the same pipe thru 
which the live steam flows to the radiator. 

A house can be heated much more quickly with steam than 
with hot water, but in a hot-water system the water will hold 
the temperature more uniformly and a more even heat is 
maintained o This is the big advantage of the hot- water sys- 
tem over all other systems. 

The installation of most lighting and heating equipment 
should be left to an experienced man. To install a pipeless 
furnace, however, is not a very great task, and can be done by 
a person with little experience. 



CHAPTER XXXIII 
Farm Water Supply and Sewage Disposal 

318. Importance of Sanitation on the Farm. It is 

high time that every farmer give serious thought to the sani- 
tation problems of farm hfe. Water is thought to be cheap 
and thus httle value is put upon it ; this is the chief cause of 
neglect. Many shallow farm wells are contaminated due to 
poor protection at the top, poor surface drainage, seepage 
and general neglect. Cistern water is often made unfit to 
drink by impurities washing in from the roof due to lack of a 
good filter, or to one improperly cared for. It is sometimes 
impure because the cistern is not properly built and seepage 
water gets in. 

The first consideration for health on the farm should be a 
pure and wholesome water supply of capacity to take care of 
all the needs of the place. A deep well is about the safest 
source of water supply. Shallow wells and cisterns, however, 
can be made safe by proper protection at the top, careful sur- 
face drainage, and by preventing the entrance of seepage 
water. For cisterns, the water should be collected only after 
the roof has been thoroly washed off. A well-built filter, 
cleaned out and refilled with filtering material at regular in- 
tervals, will go a long way toward purifying such water. 

319. Simplest Water System. The simplest system of 
water supply is an ordinary suction, or force, pump attached 
to a sink in the kitchen. The pipe leads from the pump thru 
the floor and into the well or cistern. The source of water for 
a system of this kind must be near the house and not very 

347 



348 LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT 

deep. For satisfactory service, there should not be more 
than twenty-five feet between the pump cyhnder and the 
lowest level of the water. A drain must be provided to take 
off all waste water from the sink. Such a system can be 
easily installed. 

320. Gravity System. The simplest gravity system is 
one that has a small tank located in the attic and is connected 
by means of a pipe to a force pump in the kitchen. Such a 
system makes possible the installation of all other plumbing 
equipment. Fig. 840 shows a system with a sixty-gallon 
tank in the attic. Water is pumped to the tank by means of 
a force pump and a small gasoline engine. The overflow 
from the storage tank runs to the stock tank in the lot. A 
good feature of this system is that all of the water for stock is 
pumped thru the house tank, thereby keeping it always fresh 
and cool. In Fig. 340 is shown also the installation of 
complete plumbing connections. Where there is a hill or 
slight elevation near the house, a tank can be placed on the 
ground. The concrete tank shown in Fig. 341 is a farm 
storage tank. It is large enough to supply the house, hog 
house, hog wallows, barns and garage, all of which are pro- 
vided with faucets. With the tank placed on the ground and 
provided with a good foundation, there is no danger of sup- 
ports giving away as with an elevated tank and the danger of 
the pipes that lead to the tank freezing is eliminated. Where a 
satisfactory means of elevating the tank is at hand, the grav- 
ity system is the most satisfactory for average farm condi- 
tions. A tank supported by concrete or masonry walls is a 
very good arrangement. A room underneath the tank can 
thus be provided to be used as a milk house. 



FARM WATER SUPPLY. AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL 349 




350 



LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT 




FARM WATER SUPPLY AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL 351 

321. Water Air-Pressure System. This system, shown 
in Fig. 342, is usually called the hydro-pneumatic system. 
In it the water is stored in an air-tight steel tank and is forced 
thru the pipes to the fixtures by air pressure. As the water is 
used, the pressure is gradually reduced. In some systems of 
this type there is both a water and an air pump. The most 
common type is equipped with only a water pump with air in- 
take. To operate the system, the tank is filled with air, the 
water is pumped in, and the air pressure increases as the vol- 
ume of the air decreases. Only about two-thirds to three- 
fourths of the volume of the tank is effective for water stor- 
age. This is one of the principal objections to this system, 
because to avoid pumping so often, an extremely large tank 
must be provided if the water requirements are very large. 
However, with electric power available, an automatic con- 
trol can be provided and a smaller tank be used. Complete 
equipment for a system of this kind includes an air-tight 
tank, a force pump, pressure gauges, and other fittings, and 
plumbing fixtures. 

322. Hydraulic Ram. Where there is a large quantity 
of water with sufficient fall, a hydraulic ram is the cheapest 
means of providing water pressure in the home. The first 
cost is small, there is practically no upkeep, and it will run 
continuously without any attention. Under ordinary condi- 
tions, a ram will elevate about one-seventh of the water that 
flows to it thru the drive pipe. A rule that can be used to de- 
termine the approximate amount of water that will be deliv- 
ered with a certain flow is: Multiply the number of gallons 
of flow per minute by the number of feet of vertical fall be- 
tween the source of water and the ram. Divide this by the 



352 



LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT 







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FARM WATER SUPPLY AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL 353 

height it is desired to elevate the water, and reduce the result 
by one-third to take care of friction and losses in the pipes. 
The remainder will be the quantity of water delivered. For 
example, if the flow is 4 gallons per minute, the fall is 9 feet 
and the water is to be elevated 24 feet, we have four times 9 
equals 36; 36 divided by 24 equals 1-1/2; reduce this by 1/3, 
and we have 1 gallon per minute delivered, or 1,440 gallons 
per 24 hours. 

323. Selecting a System. In selecting a water system, 
many make the mistake of installing one that does not furnish 
sufficient water. It is much better to have a cistern or tank 
with greater capacity than actually needed than to have one 
too small. The same is true in selecting a pressure tank for 
the hydro-pneumatic system or an air tank for the fresh- water 
system. The first cost will be a little greater, but the expense 
will be less in the end. As a basis for estimate, one must re- 
member that after a modern water system is installed, much 
more water will be used than before. For each person, one 
should estimate at least 25 or 30 gallons per day ; for each cow, 
15 gallons; for horses, 10 gallons, and hogs and sheep, 3 gal- 
lons per day, allowing for an additional supply to care for 
chickens, for watering the garden, washing the car or buggy, 
sprinkling the lawn, etc. 

324. The Septic Tank. No modern water system is 
complete without proper disposal of the waste water and sew- 
age. Oftentimes the sewer is simply tile that leads down to 
the field or into a ditch or small stream. This method of 
sewage disposal is not sanitary, nor is it safe from a stand- 
point of health. If a large stream is at hand, into which to 
discharge the sewage, it can be used with safety; a small 
creek, however, would soon become contaminated. 



354 



LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT 



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FARM WATER SUPPLY AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL 355 

The septic tank is a means of disposal of sewage from the 
farm home. The septic tank alone will not purify sewage ; it 
will partially purify it and put it in condition to be completely 
purified by means of a filter or thru a system of tile. The 
septic tank illustrated in Fig. 343 is a one-chambered tank. 
Its action is as follows: In the septic tank the sewage 
is acted on by bacteria — minute organisms that thrive under 
conditions where there is neither air nor light. The solids in 
the sewage are broken down and put into solution. It must 
be remembered that only one or less than one per cent 
of the sewage is sohds — the rest is all water. Soon a thick 
leathery scum forms on the surface of the tank; this indicates 
that it is working properly. The solid part that is not dis- 
solved settles to the bottom of the tank. It is necessary to 
clean this out every few years. 

To completely purify this sewage, it is discharged onto a 
filter or into a system of tile arranged to allow it to filter away 
into the soil. In the filter or in the surface soil, there are bil- 
lions of bacteria that thrive in the presence of air and light. 
These are called the nitrifying bacteria. They completely 
purify the sewage. This is nature's method of purification. 

325. The Art of Plumbing. Plumbing has been called 
a sanitary art and defined as the art of placing in buildings, 
pipes and other apparatus used for introducing water supply 
and for removing wastes. 

The Plumber as a Specialist: In big jobs in large building 
work, there are special plumbers for doing the heavy rough- 
ing-in work, putting in the large pipes and the general net- 
work of smaller pipes. Then there are other plumbers to do 
the finishing work. 



356 LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT 

There are certain essentials in handling a house-plumbing 
job. The man in charge should be thoroly competent to see 
that the connections are properly made. A plumbing job 
that is poorly finished may be a source of a great deal of dan- 
ger, and should be thoroly inspected. Simplicity in the 
laying out of piping and fixtures will tend to eliminate plumb- 
ing troubles. The principles of drainage must be ever in mind 
when installing a plumbing system. All supply pipes, as well 
as drains, must be installed so they have an outlet and with a 
gradual slope toward this outlet. There must be no low 
points or pockets where water will collect when the system is 
drained. Such a defect would cause stoppage in drain pipes, 
and the supply pipes, when exposed, would freeze at these 
points. Main soil pipe made of 4" pipe should extend 5' from 
outside of the cellar wall to act as a sewer connection into the 
house and thru the roof. This pipe should be straight from 
the cellar to the roof. All fixtures should discharge thru the 
main soil pipe, and should be provided with traps thoroly 
ventilated to prevent the escape of sewer gas into the house. 
In some plumbing jobs, an additional ventilation pipe is car- 
ried from each trap into a main 2" pipe which is independent 
of the soil pipe and is also carried thru the roof. This pre- 
vents leakage of the seal or trap. 

Plumbing materials and fixtures should be of good quality, 
simple in design, with all joints and connections made air- and 
W/ater-tight. They should be of entirely non-absorbent ma- 
terial. 

All plumbing should be as nearly accessible as possible. 
Removable wooden panels over the soil pipe and other main 
pipes are worth considering. Fixtures near main drain and 




FARM WATER SUPPLY AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL 357 

all bath and kitchen fixtures should be open work. Free ac- 
cess of air and light should also be obtained. Boxed-in sinks 
and bath tubs are insanitary because dirt and moisture are 
bound to collect around the base. 

326. Materials Used for Plumbing. For sinks, the 
solid porcelain is the most expensive. The iron enamel is 
just about as good as the solid porcelain and 
can be obtained much cheaper. For laundry 
equipment, the slate, reinforced concrete and 
enameled iron can be used. Slate tubs for 
laundry are very satisfactory. The most san- 
itary equipments are those which are in one 
piece with all parts properly rounded. The 
general equipment is usually listed as to 
quahty as No. 1, No. 2 and No. 3. No. 1 is Fig. 344. Pipe 
usually guaranteed and is very expensive; 

No. 2 is very satisfactory. It is usually not advisable to buy 
the No. 3 quality. 

The person who would do the simple plumbing jobs herein 
described should become familiar with the more common 
plumbing tools and their uses ; also, the various pipe fittings 
required. The following tools are needed for even the 
simplest job: Vise, cutter, die-stock and dies, wrenches, 
reamer or half-round file, and rule. 

327. Pipe Vise. The hinged type of vise (Fig. 344) with 
gravity pawl is about the best to secure. The reversible type 
may be secured. The latter can be thrown open either to the 
right or to the left, with a clutch on either side to engage 
the pawl. Such a vise has a distinct advantage when cut- 
ting a pipe which has fittings that will not pass thru the frame 
of an ordinary vise. 



358 



LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT 



328. Pipe Cutters. Pipe cutters (Fig. 345) are divided 
into two general types — the three-cutter wheel and the one- 
cutter wheel types. The one-cutter wheel can be secured with 
solid back or with two rollers; the latter type is probably in 




Fig. 345. Three-wheel pipe cutter. 

most general use. The three-cutter wheel type has the ad- 
vantage of being used in close quarters. This type of cutter 
forms a burr on the outside of the pipe which must be re- 




FiG. 346. Stock and die. 



moved with a file before the threads can be cut. The pipe 
does not need to be reamed out, however. 

329. Die-stocks and Dies. It must be remembered that a 
different die is used for threading a pipe than for threading a 
bolt. The pipe thread is a taper thread, making possible a 
tight joint. The solid type of die is most commonly used 
(Fig. 346). A number of dies for different-sized pipe can be 
secured and used in the same stock. The adjustable type of die 
is used in a special stock. A ratchet stock is sometimes used. 



FARM WATER SUPPLY AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL 359 

330. Pipe Wrenches. The Trimo and Stillson wrenches 
are the two types of wrenches in most common use. At least 
two sizes of wrenches should be provided — one for small pipes 
and fittings and one for larger sizes. For extremely large 




Fig. 347. Pipe wrench. 



pipe, chain tongs are usually used. (See Fig. 347 for picture 
of pipe wrenches. Fig. 347-a shows many of these tools in a 
group.) 




Pipe Wrench 



Pipe Cutter 



Fig. 347-a. Several common plumbing tools. 

331. Reamers. The reamer is used to remove the burr 
formed on the inside of pipe by cutting the pipe. A reamer 
fitted in a hand wheel is quite satisfactory. A one-half round 
or a round file can be used. 

332. Rule. A folding rule should be provided. For a 
neat job of pipefitting, careful measuring is necessary. 



360 



LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT 



333. Pipe Fittings. Pipe fittings are used in joining one 
pipe to another, to change direction, to reduce size, and to 



1^" 




■ 





D 9 



Fig. 348. Fittings for supply 
pipes: 

1. Elbow. 

2. Tee. 

3. Union. 

4. Nipple. 

5. 45° elbow. 

6. Street elbow. 

7. Reducer. 

8. Valve. 

9. Faucet. 



5 % 






lU 



Fittings for waste 



Fig. 348-a. 
pipes: 

1. Ventilating cap. 

2. Sanitary T-branch. 

3. Closed bend. 

4. Quarter bend. 

5. Tapped T-branch. 

6. Trap with hand hole. 

7. Roof flange. 

8. Drum trap. 

9. 90° elbow. 
10. Tee. 



branch off. Fittings are made of malleable, cast and wrought 
iron; the latter are usually galvanized. There are also brass 
and nickel fittings for special uses. Figs. 348 and 348-a give 
the names of the principal fittings for supply and waste pipes. 



CHAPTER XXXIV 
Drainage and Pipe-Fitting 

334. Fitting Pipe Handle for Lawn Roller. 

(Fig. 349.) (See concrete project, Sec. 146.) 
Requirements: To cut, thread and assemble pipe and fitting 
to form a handle of proper dimension for a concrete roller 
as outlined under Concrete Projects, Sec. 146. 




Fig. 349. Pipe handle for garden roller. 

Tools and Materials Needed: Pipe cutter, vise, die-stock and 
die, wrenches, and a rule. Pieces of 1/2'' pipe, lengths 
depending on requirements of particular handle; two 

361 



362 LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT 

1/2'' elbows, two 1/2'' tees, one 1/2" union, and two 3/4" 
X 1/2" tees. The latter is to serve as bearings for axle 
of roller. The size specified is sufficiently large where a 
1/2" pipe is used for axle. 
Preliminary Instruction : 

335. Measuring Materials for Handle. Extreme care 
must be observed in making measurements to have the handle 
fit smoothly. The distances A and B (Fig. 349) will depend 
on the length and diameter of roller. The distance A should 
be made about 1/2" greater than the length of roller. The 
distance B between center of fittings should be about 2" 
greater than the radius of roller. The distance C should be 
made a length that will make the roller convenient to opera- 
tor. Measurements are usually taken from the center of one 
fitting to the center of the next. To make accurate measure- 
ments, each fitting should be made tight before the next piece 
of pipe is cut. The 1/2" union can be eliminated if one of the 
tees in which the cross pipe is threaded has a right-hand 
thread and the other a left-hand thread. 

Working Instructions: 

336. Threading Pipe. Place a piece of 1/2" pipe in the 
vise. If not threaded, thread it with a right-hand die as fol- 
lows: Note that proper die is placed in stock; place guide 
bushing in place; oil end of pipe with lard oil; place bush- 
ing end of die-stock on pipe and start die with hands near cen- 
ter of stock by pressing hard on handles and rotating one- 
fourth turn at a time. After die has taken hold, move hands 
out to the ends of handle and continue rotating with less 
pressure. After each complete turn, rotate backward slightly 
to allow chips to drop. Continue this process until thread of 



DRAINAGE AND PIPE-FITTING 363 

sufficient length is cut. It is often necessary to remove die 
and try on fitting to get the best results. The fitting should 
go on at least three threads by hand. Screw fitting No. 1 on 
end of pipe by means of the pipe wrench. 

337. Cutting Pipe. Draw the pipe thru the vise and 
lay off length B with rule. Place pipe cutter on pipe so that 
the cutting wheel comes on the mark. Drop a little lard oil 
on pipe and cutting wheel, screw the handle in until cutting 
wheel begins to cut, then rotate cutter. At each revolution 
of the cutter, feed the cutter wheel inward by screwing in on 
handle; continue until pipe is cut off. Place the pipe B in 
vise and thread blank end, after which screw on fitting No. 2. 

Proceed by cutting and threading pipe length C and screw- 
ing into fitting No. 2 and No. 3. Make up other side of handle 
in the same manner; then cut, thread and assemble pipe 
lengths D, E and F so that the two sides of handle will be 
parallel. 

After handle is assembled to proper dimension, unscrew 
union No. 7 and spring handles apart until fittings Nos. 1 and 
4 will slip over the ends of axle, after which tighten union. 

-ss' 



Fig. 350. Establishing a grade for tile. 

338. Installing Drain from Kitchen Sink to Sewage 
Disposal System. 

Requirements: To install drain pipe and tile from kitchen 
sink to outlet or disposal system. (See Figs. 350, 351, 
352.) 



364 



LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT 



Tools and Materials Needed: Plumbing tools and tiling spade, 
hook and scoop, and a carpenter's level are required. 
Obtain one trap, sufficient 1-1/4" pipe to carry water 
from sink to a point 5' outside house, suitable fittings, 
white lead, 50' of 4" sewer tile, and sufficient farm drain 
tile to reach outlet. 








Fig. 351. A, tile properly laid;B, tile poorly laid. 

Preliminary Instruction: The first requirement of every 
drain is an adequate outlet or point of discharge. This 
point must be low enough so the tile can be given ample 
fall to prevent the sewage or water backing up in the 
drain. It is considered best practice to discharge sewage 
from sanitary fixtures thru sewer tile direct to septic tank 
while the kitchen waste water is usually taken care of by 
ordinary drains. A smooth, uniform grade must be pro- 
vided for every drain. In farm drainage work, this is 
usually established by means of a drainage level. 

Working Instruction: 
339. Establishing Grade Line for Drain. Determine 

point of outlet and establish a grade line by which to dig the 

ditch. For a small job such as this, when there is a decided 



DRAINAGE AND PIPE-FITTING 365 

slope of the ground, place the grade parallel to the slope. If 
the ground is practically level, a grade line can be established 
by means of an ordinary carpenter's level. Drive in a series 
of stakes from 4^ to 5' long at intervals of 25'; for long drains, 
stakes are placed every 50'. By using long stakes, a guide 
line to dig by can be placed as the grade is established. If it 
is desired to have a fall of 1/4" to the foot, take a straight 1" x 
2" scantling 4' long; tack a 



1" block under one end, ~r 

and fasten to lower side of 
level with block on lower 
side. Tie a cord to stake 
at the outlet at a point 
about 3' above the surface 



-^1^ (fl^ 



i^SP" 



Zi- 






Fig. 352. Sewer tile made tight. 



of the ground, stretch the cord to the second stake, and test it 
for grade by placing the level in position so the block will be 
down grade (Fig. 350). When the bubble of the instrument 
indicates that it is level, it shows that there is a rise of 1" to 
every 4' along the cord. 

340. Digging Ditch to Grade. Use a gage rod of defi- 
nite length, and dig ditch so its bottom will be parallel to the 
cord. If it is desired to have the drain 4' deep at the outlet, 
the gage rod should be 7' long since the cord was placed 3' 
above the surface of the ground at the outlet. If the soil is 
heavy and sticky, an open spade can be used to advantage; 
use a round-nose spade or a tile scoop for cleaning the bottom 
of ditch to receive the tile. 

341. Laying the Tile. Lay the tile as the ditch is com- 
pleted, beginning at the outlet. The ordinary farm tile can 
be laid either by hand or by means of the tile hook. The tile 



366 LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT 

must be made to fit closely together in the ditch (A, Fig. 351) ; 
this is best accomplished by rotating the tile until it is in 
place. The sewer tile (Fig. 352) is provided with bell end 
or bell mouth, and the joints are made tight. Place the tile 
in place so the direction of flow will be into the bell end ; place 
the spigot end of each tile into the bell end of the preceding 
tile as it is laid. A small piece of oakum or tarred rope forced 
in between the spigot and the bell with a flat stick will make 
possible a smooth job. Place cement mortar in the joint 
after properly adjusting the tile. The use of a swab, as indi- 
cated, is advisable. Place tile to a point 5' outside of building. 
Cut, thread and fit pipe to discharge into the sewer that has 
been laid. The depth to place this pipe and slope to give it 
will depend upon the sewer outlet. 

342. Installing Kitchen Sink and Pump. 

Requirements: To install a kitchen sink and pump so that 
water may be pumped directly from a well or cistern to 
kitchen (Fig. 353). The installation of drain for this 
sink is outlined under Sees. 338-341. 

Tools and Materials Needed : The tools needed for the project 
are the same as in Sec. 334. The following materials 
are needed: Pump, sink, trap and sufficient 1-1/4" 
pipe to reach from pump at sink to cistern or well, as 
illustrated (Fig. 353). Such elbows and couplings as 
needed and a check valve for suction pipe. White or red 
lead for making joints. 

Preliminary Instruction: 

343. Maximum Depth for Pumping Water. It must be 
remembered that the vertical distance from cylinder of pump 
to low level of water must be 25' or less to give satisfaction. 



DRAINAGE AND PIPE-FITTING 



367 



Where there is a UkeUhood of water in pipe freezing dur- 
ing cold weather, the check valve in suction pipe should be 
omitted to allow the water to drain back into well. The only 




Fig. 353. Kitchen pump and sink 
installation. 



difference in the work in this and the preceding project, Sec. 
334, is that the pipe joints must all be made absolutely tight. 
Working Instructions : 

344. Location of Kitchen Sink. Locate sink in the 
kitchen so that it will be convenient and have ample light. 
Most sinks are fastened to a wall by means of hangers or 
brackets which can be easily installed. Adjust height of sink 
to convenience of user. 



368 LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT 

Excavate for pipe from cistern to point underneath sink. 
If a basement is under house, excavate from cistern to wall. 
The pipe should be placed below frost line. Take measure- 
ments from the cistern to the sink, determining the exact 
length of each piece of pipe needed and the necessary fittings. 

345. Connecting Pipe for Pump. Cut and thread 
pipe as outlined under Sees. 336, 337. In making the various 
joints, apply a small amount of white lead to the first three 
threads in fitting or on the pipe. Begin at the pump and 
screw each fitting and piece of pipe perfectly tight before be- 
ginning on the next. 

346. Installing Plumbing in Country Home (Fig. 354) . 
Requirements: To install rough plumbing, including soil 

pipe, vent pipes and various drains for fixtures in wall 
partition while house is under construction. (See Fig. 
354.) 

Tools and Materials Needed: Plumbing tools, plumber's fur- 
nace, ladle and caulking tools. Soil pipe and soil-pipe 
connections, vent pipes, drains for fixtures and traps. 
Lead and oakum for joints. 

Preliminary Instruction: Every plumbing system should be 
designed with an idea of simplicity in the layout of piping 
and fixtures. If possible, the bath room should be di- 
rectly above the kitchen, and with the laundry room be- 
low, as shown in Fig. 354. This will make it possible for 
one soil pipe to take care of the discharge from fixtures on 
each floor. Fig. 354-a shows a system in a three-story 
house with a bath room on each floor. The soil pipe 
should extend from a point 5' outside the wall, where it 
connects with the sewer, up thru the house roof. It 



DRAINAGE AND PIPE-FITTING 



369 




-■^±z^ 



m 



Vent Pipe^ 



T 




:^ ■> 



/♦■"^^■a 'g'.^" b%%';f-j Jl H \\i^. V '«:-• >'un ;<^' 



^ 



w 



7 -a' 



■»/ Pic 



Cone ''e^t€= £^/oc A 




i/r^" 



Fig. 354. Waste 
and ventilat- 
ing pipe. 



''??> 



a 



Outlet to t>ev</€r^ 



370 



LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT 




Fig. 354-a. Waste pipe without ventilating pipe. 



DRAINAGE AND PIPE-FITTING 371 

should be straight from cellar to roof. Tight joints are 
an essential requirement of every plumbing system. 
Provide a trap for every fixture; the best practice pro- 
vides a 2" ventilation pipe with connection to each trap. 
The location of each fixture should be carefully con- 
sidered with a view to convenience for the user and to 
make a simple, efficient layout. 

Working Instructions: 

347. Sewer Tile. Lay a sewer tile from sewer connec- 
tion, or from septic tank, to a point 5' outside of building. 
Follow instructions as outlined under Sees. 338-341. Make 
connection of soil pipe with sewer, and extend it to a point 
in the basement where it will be most convenient to fixtures 
and where it will pass thru partition to roof. 

348. Soil Pipe. The joints of soil pipe are similar to 
joints of sewer tile. Each section of pipe is provided with a 
bell end into which is placed the spigot end 
of the next section. The joints must be ^-^x-o'-^J l^^e^c^ 
perfectly tight; to make them so, oakum 
and lead are used. The pipe is set in place, 
a roll of oakum is packed into the bottom of 
joint, after which molten lead is poured into joint caulked with 
the joint, fihing it completely (Fig. 355). ""^^^ and lead. 
To pour the lead where a joint is made in a horizontal pipe, a 
sort of collar must be provided with opening at the top. If 
the oakum is not carefully packed into place, the lead will run 
thru. After the lead has cooled, pack it solidly into the joint 
with a hammer and caulking tool. Well-caulked joints are 
absolutely tight. 




372 LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT 

349. Connecting Fixtures and Vents. Provide suit- 
able Ys and Ts for all fixtures, as illustrated. Connect the 
vent pipe from a point below the bottom fixture and extend it 
up, and connect back into the soil pipe at a point above the 
highest fixture. Give all horizontal soil pipes, whether for 
drainage or ventilation, a fall of at least V to the foot. To 
support soil pipe, provide suitable concrete or stone footing at 
the bottom. Support all horizontal lines with suitable hang- 
ers to prevent line from getting out of place. 

350. Connecting Cast-Iron and Lead Pipe. To make 
a connection between a cast-iron pipe and a lead pipe, first 
connect the lead pipe to a brass ferrule by means of a sol- 
dered joint; the ferrule is then caulked into the cast-iron hub 
or bell end, as outlined above. 



CHAPTER XXXV 
Supplementary Plumbing Projects 

351. Piping Water to Stock Tank. 

Requirements: To construct a pipe line from source of water 
at well or storage tank to stock tank in barnyard, as 
shown in Fig. 356. 




3focH Tonk 






top 0f>*/ J4<iTar-e Cocjf 



Fig. 356. Piping for stock tank. 

Tools and Materials Needed: Plumbing tools, as in Sec. 
334. Pipe and fittings determined by particular job. 

373 



374 



LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT 



Instructions: 

1) Take measurement for pipe. 

2) Cut and thread pipe not threaded. 

3) Excavate for pipe line-. 

4) Connect pipe with fittings above ground. 

5) Place pipe in ditch. 

6) Provide cut-off and means of draining lines to prevent 
freezing. 



-> > >->■ ^ 



T>^ 




Fig. 357. A hot-water tank installation „ 

352. Installing Hot- Water Tank with Kitchen Range 
Having Hot- Water Back. 

Requirements: To install a hot- water tank in kitchen with 
proper connection to water supply, and to hot-water 
back in kitchen range, as shown in Fig. 357. 

Tools and Materials Needed: Tools as in Sec. 334. Mate- 
rials dependent on particular job. Tank, hot-water 
back, pipe fittings and white lead or pipe cement. 

Instructions: 
1) Locate tank so it is out of the way and convenient for 
connection to mains and to range. 



SUPPLEMENTARY PLUMBING PROJECTS 



375 




2) Take measurements for pipe. Cut and thread pipe not 
threaded. 

3) Tap main water line with a tee. 

4) Make all connections. 
Note: Cold water must enter at the 

bottom of the tank, and hot water is 
drawn off at the top. Remember, also, 
that the bottom connection from water 
back must enter tank at the bottom, and 
the top connection must enter the tank 
several feet above the bottom and at a 
point above the back so the water will rise 
on being heated and will have proper circu- 
lation. 
353. To Make a Stock Water 
Heater. 
Requirements: To make a stock water 

heater when steam pressure and a 

supply of water under pressure is 

available. (See Fig. 358.) 
Tools Needed: Plumbing tools as in Sec. 

334. One breast 

drill and l/8"bit. 

Materials Needed: 3' 
of 1-1/2" galvan- 
ized pipe, 4-1/2' 
of 1/2" galvan- 
ized pipe, three 
1/2" cut-off 
valves, two 1/2" Fig. 358. Stock water heater. 



/• 




51 



376 LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT 

elbows, one 1/2'' cap, one 1-1/2'' to 1/2" bushing, one 
1-1/2" X 1/2" tee, one 1-1/2" to 1/2" coupling reducer, 
one 1-1/2" X 3" nipple. 
Instructions: 

1) Cut and thread all pipe to dimension indicated on plan. 

2) Drill 1/8" holes at 3" intervals on opposite sides of 1/2" 
pipe. 

3) Assemble 1/2" steam pipe in following order: Screw 12" 
pipe into valve on steam line, elbow onto 12" pipe, 3" 
nipple into elbow, 1-1/2" x 1/2" bushing onto nipple, 33" 
pipe into opposite side of bushing, screw cap on end of 
pipe. 

4) Assemble water jacket as follows: Screw tee on 1-1/2" 
bushing, connect 6" nipple into tee, screw valve onto 
nipple, connect valve to water main. Screw 1-1/2" pipe 
into tee, on opposite end screw 1-1/2" x 1/2" reducing 
couphng, connect 3" nipple, elbow, another 3" nipple 
and valve to control flow of warm water. 

Note: The temperature and flow of water can be con- 
trolled by regulating the flow of steam and cold water. Where 
a boiler is used in connection with dairy room, this is a good 
way to heat the water for the cows. 

354. Installing a Hydraulic Ram. 
Requirements: To install a hydraulic ram for elevating 
water from a lower to a higher elevation for household 
consumption, as shown in Fig. 359. 
Tools Needed: Plumbing tools as in Sec. 334. 

TiUng tools as in Project No. 3, Sec. 338. 
Material Needed: Sufficient drive and discharge pipe of 
proper size and length, with necessary fittings; this de- 
pending on the individual installation. 



SUPPLEMENTARY PLUMBING PROJECTS 



377 



Instructions: 

1) Locate position of ram. 

2) Make measurements and lay out position of drive pipe 
and discharge pipe. 

3) Excavate for drive and discharge pipes. 




Fig. 359. Hydraulic ram. 

4) Proper length and slope of drive pipe depends on partic- 
ular ram. Secure proper information from manufac- 
turer. 

5) Connect drive pipe from ram to source of water. 

6) Connect discharge pipe from ram to storage tank. 

7) Provide drain for waste water at ram. 

8) Cover drive and discharge pipes. 

9) Protect ram from high water. 

Note: A hydraulic ram is practical only where there is a 

large quantity of water flowing with several feet fall. 

355. Installing Drain Tile at Foundation of House 

(Fig. 360). 

Requirements: To install a drain tile at foundation of house 

to intercept any seepage water that flows into basement. 



378 



LIGHTING AND SANITARY EQUIPMENT 




oyoe 



&rai/e/ or \V^. 



^ fhur;c7'c7f-/or> 



F/oor-- 



2. 



:TZf 



17/e 




Hoa^e 



Tools and Materials Needed: Tiling tools as in Sec. 338. 

Sufficient drain tile to extend along side of house and 
to outlet. Actual amount depending on local conditions. 

Instructions: 

1) Stake out location of drain. 

2) Establish grade line. 

3) Excavate to grade. 

4) Lay tile. 

5) Check grade. 

6) Back-fill. 
Note: Drains should be placed 

a little below the level of base- 
ment floor. If trench above tile 
is filled with a porous material 
like gravel, the tile will be much 
more effective in intercepting the water. This tile should 
be placed in addition to drains for down-spouting and for 
basement floor. 

356. Additional Jobs on Farm. 
a) Install drain to septic tank. 
h) Install farm drains. 

c) Install tile for down-spouting on barnyard buildings. 

d) Install an automatic waterer for stock. 

e) Re-charge an acetylene light plant. 
/) Put a new pump in a well or cistern. 
g) Repair a farm pump. 

h) Construct and install a filter. 



/ Dra,o 

Fig. 360. Location of tile to 
drain house foundation. 



PART VIII 

Rope and harness work on the 

Farm 

chapter xxxvi 

Construction and Use of Rope 

357. The Need for Rope Work. A working knowledge 
in the use of rope is of value to every one on the farm. Rope 
is used in a great many ways, and often much time may be 
saved by knowing how to make a simple splice, or tie a satis- 
factory knot or hitch for a particular purpose. Accidents are 
often averted by knowing how to tie the right knot for the 
right place. To become expert in tying and splicing rope re- 
quires a great deal of practice. One can learn this kind of 
work only by actually doing it. The work outlined under 
this head is to give the reader an idea of the principal knots 
and splices and their applications. Practice work is grouped 
into several projects. The student should not expect to make 
progress in rope work without carrying thru these projects. 

358. Materials of Which Rope Is Made. The greater 
part of rope is made from either manilla or sisal fiber. Manilla 
fiber, a product of the Philippine Islands, is obtained from a 
plant similar to the banana. The sisal fiber, from which most 
binder twine is made, a product of Yucatan, is secured from a 
plant similar to the American aloe. The two kinds of rope 
are ordinarily known as hemp rope. The sisal is neither as 
strong nor as durable as manilla fiber. A distinguishing 

379 



380 



ROPE AND HARNESS WORK 



characteristic of the best quahty manilla fiber is its glossy 
appearance. The poorer quality of manilla is of a brownish 
color, and its glossy characteristic is only slight. Sisal has a 
dead, lifeless color. The difference between the two might be 
compared with enamel paint and flat paint. Cotton rope is 
little used at present, altho, at one time, it was used almost 
exclusively in some localities. 

359. How Rope Is Made. In the actual process of 

making a rope, the fibers are 
twisted right-handed into yarns; 
several yarns are twisted right- 
handed into a strand, and the 
strands are twisted left-handed 
into a rope. 

360. Rope Terms. 

Fiber — material as obtained 

from plant. 
Yarn — twisted fiber. 
Thread — two or more small yarns twisted together left-handed. 

(Usually cotton, wool and silk.) 
String or Twine — same as thread, but made of a little larger 

yarns. (Jute and hemp also used.) 
Strand — same as string, but with larger yarns, for making 

rope. 
Cord — two or more threads or strings twisted together. 
Rope — two or more strands twisted together right-handed. 
Hawser — a rope of three strands. 
Shroud-laid — a rope of four strands. 
Cable — three hawsers twisted together left-handed. 
Standing part — long end of rope not used. 




Fig. 361. Partsof rope: A,rope; 
B and C, strands; D, fiber 
twisted into yarn. 



CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF ROPE 381 

Bight — is formed when the rope is turned back on itself, form- 
ing the letter U. 
End — part used in leading. 
Loop — is formed by crossing the sides of a bight. 
Lay — to twist the strands of a rope together. 
Unlay — to untwist the strands of a rope. 
Relay— io twist strands together that have become untwisted. 
Whip — to bind the end of the rope to prevent raveling. 
Splice — to join two ends of a rope by interweaving the strands. 
Crown splice — to interweave the strands at the end of a rope. 
Pay — to paint, tar or grease a rope to resist moisture. 
Haul — to pull on a rope. 
Taut — drawn tight or strained. 

361. Care and Treatment of Rope. A new rope that 
is kinky when unwound can best be straightened out by draw- 
ing it across the floor or over a sod-covered field. If it is very 
stiff, it should be immersed in raw linseed oil, tallow or lard, 
and boiled. This treatment not only makes the rope more 
pliable, but serves as a lubricant, preventing internal wear. 
The wear inside a rope is the result of the fibers slipping back 
and forth over each other, frequently caused by using a pul- 
ley that is too small. This wear in a rope can be easily seen 
by pulling the strands apart. Often a rope is greatly weak- 
ened before the wear is noticed. External wear is the result 
of drawing the rope over rough surfaces which tears the fibers. 
This source of wear can be easily detected and removed. 
Where it is desired to protect the rope from dampness, as well 
as to prevent external wear, the application of an exterior 
coating such as tallow, graphite, beeswax, or black lead and 
tallow, will lengthen the life of a rope. Always keep rope in a 



382 ROPE AND HARNESS WORK 

dry place. If it does get wet, stretch to dry it. Do not allow 
the end of the rope to unravel. 

362. Requirements of a Good Knot. The three re- 
quirements of a good knot have been stated as follows : (a) 
Rapidity with which it can be tied, {h) its ability to hold fast 
when pulled tight, (c) the readiness with which it can be un- 
tied. 

363. Theory of Knots and Splices. Method of making 
various types of knots can be acquired only by practice. The 
method of making many good knots is obtained by close ob- 
servation. There are no very definite rules that one can fol- 
low. The following principles should be kept in mind : 

''The principle of a knot is that no two parts which move in 
the same direction, if the rope were to slip, should lie along- 
side of and touch each other.'' * ... ''A knot or hitch must 
be so devised that the tight part of the rope must bear on 
the free end in such a manner as to pinch and hold it, in a knot 
against another tight part of the rope, or in a hitch against 
the object to which the rope is attached."! 

The student should try to apply these two principles until 
they are thoroly mastered. 

*Wm. Kent, Mechanical Engineers' Hand Book. 
fHoward W. Riley, Cornell Reading Course. 



CHAPTER XXXVII 
Whipping and Making End Knots, End Splices 

364. Tools and Materials Needed for Rope Work. 

Tools and Materials Needed: A knife and a large nail or marlin 
spike (Fig. 362) which can be whittled out of a piece of 
hard wood, are the only tools needed for this work. A 
few pieces of 3/8'' rope and 
some pieces of cord will com- 
plete the equipment. 

365. Treatment of Raveled Ropes. In ropes that are 
raveled, the strands should be twisted and carefully relaid to 
the point where the knot is to be formed. In unlaying the 
end of a new rope in preparation for making a knot, care must 



C 



Fig. 362. Marlin spike. 





.^^^sssSUffl]^ 



Fig. 363. Whipping end of rope. 



be taken not to untwist the strands. Neither whipping nor 
down crowns can be called knots, but they serve the purpose 
of a knot and can be used to advantage where it is desirable to 
have a knot on the end of a rope. 

366. Whipping. Place the piece of cord on the rope, 
allowing one end to hang loosely over the end of the rope 
about 2" (A, Fig. 363). Make a loop by passing the other 

383 



384 



ROPE AND HARNESS WORK 



(B) end of the string along the rope to make a loose end of 
about 2". Hold the rope and cord with left hand, as shown 
in 2, Fig. 363. Grasp the loop of cord with the right hand 
and wrap it tightly down the rope over itself, as shown in 
third sketch. When wrapped as much as desired, draw up 
the loop by pulling on the ends A and B. This will complete 
the job of whipping. 

The crown knot (Fig. 364) in itself 
is of little value, but it is 
the first step in making a 
crown or end splice. First 
unlay several inches of 
rope, then bring strand 
No. 1 between strands 
Nos. 2 and 3, forming a 
loop, as shown in sketch 1. 



Crown Knot. 





Fig. 364. Crown knot. 



Pass strand No. 2 across the loop, as shown in sketch 2. 
Pass strand No. 3 over strand No. 2 and thru the loop. Pull 
the strands down tightly and complete the crown. 




Fig. 365. Wall knot. 

368 . Wall Knot (Fig. 365) . Unlay several inches of rope 
as in previous case. Hold rope with left hand and with right 



WHIPPING AND MAKING END KNOTS, SPLICES 385 




\ Z 

Fig. 366. Wall and 
crown knot. 

The crown knot is 



hand bring strand No. 1 around, forming a loop as in 1. 
Strand No. 2 is passed around No. 1, as indicated by arrow in 
1. Strand No. 3 is passed around No. 2 and up thru loop 
formed by No. 1, as indicated in 2 and 3. The loose 
ends are then drawn up, as shown in 4. 

389. Wall and Crown Knot (Fig. 366). As the name 

would imply, the knot is a combina- 
tion of the two previous knots. The 

wall knot is made and then the crown 

knot, as shown in 1 and 2, Fig. 366. 
370. Manrope Knot. (Fig. 367.) 

This knot is also a combination of the 

wall and crown knot, but is made just 

the reverse of the wall and crown knot. 

first made and the wall knot drawn down 
over it. 

371. Matthev/ Walker Knot (Fig. 
368). This is a very permanent end 
knot. It is made by first making a loosely- 
constructed wall knot, then by passing A 

thru the loop with B,B thru the loop with C, and C thru the 

loop with A, as shown in 1, Fig. 368. £- 

When drawn up tight, we have knot, 

as shown in 2, Fig. 368. 

372. End or Crown Splice (Fig. 
3 69) . This is one of the best end fas- 
tenings for lead ropes. It is made 
by making a crown knot and then 
splicing back the loose ends. A large nail or marlin spike is 
best for weaving the loose ends back. Each loose strand is 




1 z 

Fig. 367. Man- 
rope knot. 




2 

Fig. 368. Matthew 
Walker knot. 



386 



ROPE AND HARNESS WORK 



passed over the adjacent strand in a diagonal direction and 
under the next one, as shown in 1, 2 and 3, Fig. 369. 

373. Overhand Knot (Fig. 370) . The overhand knot is 





Fig. 370. Overhand knot. 

I Z 3 

Fig. 369. Crown splice. 

one of the most common and the simplest of end knots. It 
forms a part of many other knots and hitches. It is made by 
making a loop in the rope and passing one end thru it. Either 
a right- or left-hand knot may be made. 

374. Blood Knot (Fig. 371). This knot is larger than 
the overhand knot, but made in the same way, except that 




sssssss 
Fig. 371. Blood knot. 




Fig. 372. Figure 8 knot. 



the end of the rope i^. passed thru the loop several times before 
it is pulled tight. A similar knot is made by the seamstress 
by rolling the end of the thread between the finger and thumb. 
375. Figure 8 Knot (Fig. 372) . This knot is a good one 
to use on the ends of ropes to prevent them from being pulled 



WHIPPING AND MAKING END KNOTS, SPLICES 387 

thru a pulley or a hole. It is made by forming a loop, then 
passing the short end A of the loop over the standing part of 
the rope B at X and bringing it back thru the loop at Y. 




Fig. 373. Stevedore knot. 



376. Stevedore Knot (Fig. 373) . This knot is the same 
as the figure 8 knot, but instead of one turn around the stand- 
ing part of rope, three turns are made, as. shown in 1 and 2, 
Fm, 373. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII 
Tying Knots and Hitches 

377. Practice in Tying Knots. Whip the ends 
of each piece of rope. Study each knot carefully, and 
make the same knot several times for practice with and 
without sketch. Be sure the knot is correctly tied before at- 
tempting a new one. 

This knot (Fig. 374) is one of the 
simplest for fastening two pieces of 
rope together. It is made by taking 
the two rope ends, placing them 
side by side, and tying an overhand 
knot. 

379. Square Knot (Fig. 375). This is a smooth knot 
that is easily tied and easily untied. It is used a great deal 
for tying packages; also, for fastening the ends of binder twine 



378. Binder Knot. 




Fig. 374. Binder knot 




Fig. 375. Square knot. 

when threading the binder. To make this knot, first make a 
right-hand overhand knot, then cross the strand and tie the 
left-hand overhand knot. This knot will not hold if the two 
ropes are of different sizes. 

388 



TYING KNOTS AND HITCHES 



389 



380. Granny Knot (Fig. 376). The granny knot slips 
easily and is therefore a very poor knot. The difference be- 
tween the granny knot and square knot can be easily noted by 
comparing Fig. 375 and Fig. 376. A great many make the 
granny knot when attempting to make the square knot. 





Fig. 377. Surgeon's knot. 



Fig. 376. Granny knot. 



381. Surgeon's Knot (Fig. 377). This knot is practi- 
cally the same as the square knot, except that when making 
the right-hand overhand knot, the rope is twice wrapped in- 
stead of only once. The second part of the knot is completed 
by making a left-hand overhand as in completing the square 
knot. 




Fig. 378. Weaver's knot. 

382 . Weaver' s Knot (Fig. 378) . This knot is one of the 
best, due to the fact that it holds well, is easily tied and easily 
untied. To tie this knot, grasp the ends of the rope with left 
hand, as shown in 1. With end A under B, grasp rope at X 
and pass it around end A, forming a loop as in 2 ; complete the 
knot by passing end B thru loop as in 3. Draw it up tight. 



390 



ROPE AND HARNESS WORK 



383. Carrick's Bend (Fig. 379). This knot is used as a 
fancy knot in braids. It is also a very satisfactory knot to 
fasten ropes together. In tying this knot, form a loop with 
the end Y under the standing part A, as shown in 1. Pass 




Z 5 

Fig. 379. Carrick's bend. 



the other end of rope under the loop X, over the standing 
part A, under end Y, again over A, under standing partB and 
over A, the final knot being completed as in 4. When drawn 
tight, it will assume the shape of a double bowline. 
Knots for Fastening Cattle, Tying Hay Ropes, Etc.: 

A point to be considered in use of rope is the correct sefec- 
tion of knot for right place; this is especially true where a 
knot is to be loosened often, or where it is desired to have a 
knot that will slip. 

384. Bowline Knot (Fig. 380). This is one of the best 
knots for fastening the end of a rope as in hitching. There 
are several kinds, but the overhand is probably the easiest 
and quickest to make. To make the knot, form a small loop 
(C) in 1 near the end of the rope, as in Fig. 380. Hold the 
loop with the left hand, grasp the end A with the right hand. 



TYING KNOTS AND HITCHES 



391 



pass it thru the loop C and around the standing partB, and 
back thru the loop, as in 2 and 3. 

385. Double-Rope Bowline Knot (Fig. 381). This 
knot is quite similar to the knot just described, but is used 




1 Z 3 

Fig. 380. Bowline knot. 




\ Z 5 

Fig. 381. Double rope bowline, 
when made in the middle of a long rope or at the end when 
doubled. A loop ( X) is formed and part A passed thru as in 



392 



ROPE AND HARNESS WORK 



previous case. Part A is drawn thru far enough so that the 
double loopJB can be drawn thru it, as shown in 2 and 3. This 
knot is especially useful in throwing horses and cattle. 

386. Slip Knot (Fig. 
882). The slip knot is a 
very common one and often 
used when a different type 
of knot would be much more 
satisfactory. To tie this 
knot, form a loop, grasp 
rope B and draw it thru, as 
shown in 1 and 2 in Fig. 382. 




I Z 

Fig. 382. Slipknot. 



387. Manger Knot (Fig. 383). This knot is quite simi- 
lar to the ordinary slip knot, but much better on account of 




\ 2. 

Fig. 383. Manger knot. 



being easier to untie. To tie this knot, form a loop C, grasp 
the bight B and pass it around the standing part of the rope 
and thru loop C; then complete the knot by bringing end A 
around the standing part and thru B. 



TYING KNOTS AND HITCHES 



393 



388. Lariat Knot (Fig. 384). As the name would indi- 
cate, this knot is used in forming a lariat. It is tied by first 
forming an overhand knot near the end of the rope, as at C in 1, 






Fig. 384. Lariat knot. 

Fig. 384. The end A is then passed around the standing part 
B and thru the loop twice. The overhand knot is then drawn 
tight and the knot is complete. 

389. Hangman's Noose (Fig. 385). This is another 
knot with a slip loop. It is a knot that is easy to tie and holds 




Fig. 385. Hangman's knot. 

well. Make a double loop, as in 1 ; then wind the end of rope 
back the number of rounds desired, passing it thru loop 7, 2. 
By drawing on the noose, the knot is completed, as in 3. 



394 



ROPE AND HARNESS WORK 



390. Farmer's Loop (Fig. 386). If it is desired to tie a 
loop in the middle of a rope when both ends are fastened, the 
farmer's loop is suitable. It is easily tied and easily untied. 
Make two turns in rope and hold it, as in 1, Fig. 386. Pass 






Fig. 386. Farmer's loop. 

loop A under loop B between B and C in 2. Next pass loop 
C under loop A, as in 3. Now, pass B under loop C and up 
between A and C in 4. The knot is completed by drawing 
the standing part tight. 
Temporary Hitches. 

Note: A hitch should be selected for a particular use. One 
should be very careful in making a scaffold hitch where life is 
in danger. It must be kept in mind that the hitches here 
outlined are for temporary use. 

391. Half Hitch (Fig. 387). The half hitch is one step 
in making other hitches and knots. It is useful, however, 
when the standing part of the rope is drawn tight and pinches 
the end against object tied, as in Fig. 387. 



TYING KNOTS AND HITCHES 



395 



392. Timber Hitch (Figs. 388 and 389). This hitch is 
one step in advance over the half hitch. The end of the rope 
is wrapped several times instead of simply drawn under once 





Fig. 387. Half hitch. 



Fig. 388. Timber hitch. 



as in the half hitch. A combination of the timber and half 
hitch is much more secure. (See Fig. 389.) 




Fig. 389. Timber and half 
hitch. 




Fig. 390. Rolling hitch. 



393. Rolling Hitch (Fig. 390) . This hitch is very easily 
and quickly made, and is a suitable fastening for most any 
purpose. Wrap rope three times about the object to which 
it is to be fastened, then make two half hitches about the 
standing part. 

394. Clove Hitch (Fig. 391) . This is one of the simplest 
and yet one of the most secure methods of fastening tent 
ropes, guy ropes or any rope when there is to be a direct 
pull against it. There are several methods of making the 



396 



ROPE AND HARNESS WORK 



clove hitch, but probably the farmer's method is best. Cross 
the arms, the left in front of the right; grasp the rope, as in 1, 
Fig. 391; then bring the hands to position, shown in 2; then 




1 2 

Fig. 391. Clove hitch. 



complete the hitch by turning both hands to the right, as in 3. 

395. Scaffold Hitch (Fig. 392). The scaffold hitch is a 
modified form of the clove hitch. Make a rather loose clove 






Fig. 392. Scaffold hitch. 

hitch and place over the end of scaffold, as in 1, Fig. 392. 
Draw the ropes tight in opposite direction, turn the plank 
over and fasten short end to the standing part by means of a 
bowline knot, as in 3. 

396. Blackwall Hitch (Fig. 393). This hitch can be 
used only when the pull on rope is continuous and a hook is 
provided. Make a bight in the rope and pass around the 



TYING KNOTS AND HITCHES 



397 



hook; the free end is then passed thru the hook, and the 
standing part passed over it from the opposite side. 

397. Sheepshank (Fig. 394). The sheepshank is not a 
hitch in the same sense as the other hitches described. It is 





I 2 

Fig. 393. Blackwall hitch. 
used as a means of shortening ropes. To tie this hitch, a loop 
is formed that is large enough to reduce the rope to desired 
length (see 1, Fig. 394) and held in the left hand; a half hitch 
is formed of the standing part of the rope and passed over 

2 





Fig. 394. Sheepshank. 
each end of the loop, as in 2. To make this hitch permanent, the 
standing part is drawn thru the bight at each end of the loop. 
Splices: 

398. End or Crown Splice. This type of splice has been 
described under head of means of preventing rope from 
raveling (Fig. 369). 



398 



ROPE AND HARNESS WORK 



399. Loop Splice (Fig. 395). This splice is used when a 
permanent loop is to be constructed at any point of the rope 
other than the end. The size and location of the loop is first 
determined, then two strands are raised on the short end and 





I 2 3 

Fig. 395. Loop splice. 
the lead rope passed under them. To complete the splice, 
two strands in the long part of the rope are raised, as in a, 1, 
Fig. 395; and the short end h is passed thru and drawn up, 
as in 3. 




i 2 "- 3 

Fig. 396. Eye splice. 

400. Eye Splice or Side Splice (Fig. 396). The eye 
splice is used when it is desired to form a loop at the end of a 
rope or as a side splice where it is desired to fasten one rope to 
another at any point other than the end. Unlay the end of 
the rope for several inches, determine the size of loop to form, 
then place the two outside strands to straddle the main rope 



TYING KNOTS AND HITCHES 



399 



and the center strand to run along the top of the rope, as in 1, 
Fig. 396. Now, by means of the marhn spike or large nail, 
raise one of the strands A and pass the center strand No. 1 
under it. Pass strand No. 2 over A and under B, and pass 
strand No. 3 thru from the opposite side so that it comes out 
where No. 1 enters. Draw all ends up snug and weave in the 
strands, as described for the end splice. 

401. Short Splice (Fig. 397). The short splice is used 
for joining the two ends of rope together when it is not desired 
A 





Fig. 397. Short splice. 

to draw it thru pulleys. This splice is not as smooth as the 
long splice, but it is strong and quite easily made. To make 
the splice, unlay the ends of the two ropes for a sufficient dis- 
tance, depending on size of rope and load — for a 3/8'' rope, at 
least 6". Bring the ends of the rope together so that the 
strands of one pass alternately between those of the other, as 
in 1, Fig. 397. Take each pair of strands from opposite sides 
and tie a right-hand overhand knot, draw the knots tightly 
and pass each strand diagonally to the left, then weave it in as 
in making the end splice (1, 2 and 3, Fig. 397). 

402. Long Splice (Fig. 398). This type of splice is so 
nearly the same size as the other part of the rope, that it can 
be used thru pulleys without hindrance. Every user of rope 



400 



ROPE AND HARNESS WORK 





' SS SSSH ^ SS. 



Fig. 398. Long splice. 



TYING KNOTS AND HITCHES 401 

should know how to make the long splice. Unlay the end of 
the rope, as in making a short splice. A 1/4" rope should be 
unlaid about 12'', a 3/8" rope 16", a 1/2" rope 24", and a V 
rope 38", to obtain best results. Lock the strands as in the 
beginning of the short splice, pair the strands from each end, 
as in 1, Fig. 398, twisting two of the pairs together. As for 
the remaining pair, unlay one strand and relay the other 
strand in its place. Continue until within a few inches of the 
end of the relaid strand No. 1, as in 2. Repeat the process 
with either pair of the other strands. Untwist the last pair; 
the rope should appear, as in 3, with each strand coming from 
the left and passing in front of the strands from the right. 
To complete the splice, tie each pair of strands with a right- 
hand overhand knot, as in 4. Weave the loose ends into the 
rope by passing one end over the adjacent strand and under 
the next, as in 5. Cut the ends of strands off and pound 
down the uneven ends to make finished splice, as in 6. 



CHAPTER XXXIX 
Projects in Rope Work 

403. Making a Halter. 

Preliminary Instructions: There will be 12' or more of rope 
needed for this project. Temporary halters are much 
more satisfactory for leading an animal than is a rope 
placed about the animal's neck. To make a temporary 





1 Z 

Fig. 399. Temporary halter. 

halter, it is necessary to know how to make a few of the 

various knots and hitches described in previous pages 

and referred to in this project. 

Halter No. 1 (Fig. 399). To construct this halter, first 

make a loop in the end of the rope A, tying it with a simple 

overhand bowline, as described in Sec. 389. Pass the end of 

rope with loop about animal's neck and form a second loopB 

in the standing part of the rope thru which draw loop A and 

place around the animal's nose. The slack is drawn out with 

the free end of the rope, as in 2. 

Halter No. 2 (Fig. 400). This type of temporary halter is 
usually called the Hackamore. It is used for leading either 
cattle or horses, and is made by passing one end of the rope 

402 



PROJECTS IN ROPE WORK 



403 



about the animars neck and tying with a bowline knot. A 
half hitch is thrown in the standing part of the rope and 
passed over the animal's nose, as in 1, Fig. 400; a second half 







Fig. 400. Temporary halter (Hackamore). 



hitch is made below the first and passed over the nose, as in 2. 
The first half hitch is wrapped about the second and passed 
over the aninal's head, as in 3. To complete the halter, the 
standing part of the rope is passed thru the loop C below the 
half hitch, as indicated in 4. 



404 



ROPE AND HARNESS WORK 



404. An Adjustable Halter (Fig. 401). 
Preliminary Instructions: To make a satisfactory adjust- 
able halter, it is necessary to be familiar with the method 
of making the eye splice, loop splice and end splice. The 

size of rope to use will depend 
on the use of halter. Most 
halters are made from 1/2" to 
3/4" rope. The length of rope 
needed is 12'. 
Working Instructions: 

1) Make an eye splice in end of 
rope as at a, Fig. 401 This 
splice should be only large 
enough to allow the standing 
part of rope to pass thru it 
freely. 

2) Measure from the loop of the 
eye splice the distance {d) that will be required to reach 
nearly around the animal's nose. At this point make a 
loop splice {h) with loop the same size as that of the 
eye splice. 

3) Pass the standing end of the rope thru loop a and loop h. 

4) Complete halter by making end splice on end c. 

405. Making a Non-Adjustable Halter (Fig. 402). 
Note: The only difference between this baiter and the one 

described in Sec. 404 is that the head piece and nose piece 
are made of definite length, depending on the head dimen- 
sions of the particular animal for which the halter is made. 
1) Determine the necessary length of head piece and nose 
piece by measuring animal's head. 




Fig. 401. Adjustable halter. 



PROJECTS IN ROPE WORK 



405 



2) Make loop splice (6, Fig. 402), leaving c long enough to 
form nose piece. 

3) Side splice end of c into standing part of rope at a, mak- 
ing head piece d of suitable 
size. 

4) Thread end c thru loop h. 

5) Make end splice e in end of 
standing part of rope to com- 
plete the halter. 

406. The Trip Rope (Fig. 403) . 

Materials Needed: Thirty feet of 
1/2'' rope, three 2" rings, and 
two heavy straps with buck- 
les to go around ankles. 

Preliminary Instructions: In 
handling young horses, it is 
sometimes very essential to have some means of tripping 
them when the horse does not obey the command of the 




e ^^^^s:S35SSS^^ 



Fig. 402. Non-adjustable 
halter. 




Fig. 403. Trip rope. 
trainer. Knee pads should be provided when the trip 
rope is used. 



406 ROPE AND HARNESS WORK 

Working Instructions: 

1) Place ankle straps on front ankles with a ring on each 
strap, 

2) Place surcingle with ring at bottom around horse just 
back of shoulders, or tie around the body at this point a 
piece of rope, using a single bowline knot. 

3) Take long rope provided, pass thru ring on ankle strap of 
near foot, up thru ring at bottom of surcingle, and down 



- U3E Halter 




■* Lift This Toot 

Fig. 404. Throwing rope. 

to other ankle ring where it is tied. The trip is then 
ready to use by pulling on standing part of long rope. 
407. Throwing or Casting Rope (Fig. 404). 

Materials Needed: Thirty feet of 1/2^' rope and straps. 

Preliminary Instructions: In handling horses, it is some- 
times necessary to throw the animal for the purpose of an 
operation or otherwise. To avoid chafing or burning the 
animal with a rope, straps should be provided for those 
places where a rope would rub. 

Working Instructions: 
1) Tie a double rope bowline knot, as described in Sec. 
385, in middle of rope to serve as crupper. 



PROJECTS IN ROPE WORK 



407 



2) Adjust crupper in place, run to withers and tie a square 
knot (Sec. 379). 

3) Pass rope about body at withers just back of front legs; 
tie with another square knot, forming a surcingle and 




Fig. 405. Casting rope. 

crupper properly adjusted to the animal. Provide ring 
or girth, as shown in Fig. 404. 

4) Run the free end of the rope from top of surcingle thru 
the ring in halter back thru ring on girth. The rope is 
then ready for use. 

5) Instead of rope under No. 3, a regular crupper and sur- 
cingle may be used. 

6) To use rope, lift the front foot of the animal on the side 
opposite that on which the rope is passed and pull on the 
free end of the rope. 

408. Rope for Casting Cattle (Fig. 405). 
Material Needed: Thirty-five feet of 1'' rope. 
Preliminary Instructions: The instruction for throwing a 

horse should be kept in mind in throwing a cow or steer. 

Care must be observed to avoid hurting the animal. One 



408 ROPE AND HARNESS WORK 

need be acquainted only with the bowhne knot and the 
simplest half hitches to adjust a rope for throwing cattle. 
Working Instructions: 

1) Place one end around the animal's neck and tie rope with 
a bowline knot (a, Fig. 405) . 

2) Pass the rope about the animal's body just back of the 
fore legs, forming a half hitch at withers, as shown at 6, 
Fig. 405. 

3) Pass the rope about the body (c) at the hips, forming an- 
other half hitch. 

4) If a cow is to be thrown, the rope should be placed just in 
front of the udder. 

5) To throw the animal, pull to rear and toward side upon 
which it is to be thrown. 



CHAPTER XL 
Harness Repair 

409. The Importance of Good Harness. Nothing 
adds more to the appearance of a well-groomed horse than a 
neat, clean and properly-fitting harness. A good set of har- 
ness not only adds to the appearance of a team, but makes the 
team more efficient in its operation. A first-class teamster 
will take pride in keeping his team properly fitted. Such 
negligence as allowing the harness to be bound up with pieces 
of baling wire and with binder twine is inexcusable. Often 
the hame straps are allowed to loosen, the breeching to hang 
too low, resulting in sore shoulders and chafed sides and back. 

The farmer cannot afford to neglect the care and upkeep of 
his harness. In fact, each farmer should be provided with a 
simple harness repair outfit and keep on hand a few supplies 
for adding a strap by sewing or riveting where one is worn. 

The life of a harness can be greatly increased by systematic 
care. The practice of oiling the harness at least once a year 
should not be overlooked. Take the harness apart and wash 
it thoroly in warm, soft water and soap; allow it time to dry; 
then apply a coat of good quaUty harness oil. Allow the oil 
to soak in before it is rubbed off. Before the harness is re- 
assembled, each part should be gone over carefully and 
needed repairs made. This work can easily be done on the 
farm on rainy days. 

410. The Harness Room. A conveniently-located har- 
ness room is of great value in caring for the harness. It is 

409 



410 ROPE AND HARNESS WORK 

very objectionable to store the harness in most stables due to 
the effect of the moisture and the ammonia from the manure. 
When the stable is kept thoroly cleaned and is well ventilated, 
harness can be kept with little damage and are thereby much 
more conveniently located for use. 

411. Harness Oil. Be careful not to use a mineral oil 
for the harness or leather belts. Mineral oils will cause the 
leather to dry out and crack. Buy only standard brands 
found on the market. A good oil can be made by melting 
three pounds of tallow without letting it boil, and gently add- 
ing one pound of neat's-foot oil. Stir continuously until cold 
so that it will be perfectly mixed. Color by adding a little 
lampblack. 

412. Repair Leather. Leather for repairing can be 
bought from any harness shop. It is best to buy a fairly 
large piece, as it can be secured much more cheaply that way. 
Some men buy a half hide, and, thereby, secure some of 
both the best quality leather from the back of the hide and the 
poorer, cheaper belly leather. The latter can be used where 
there is little strain. 

413. Equipment for HarnessWork. A clamp is needed 
for holding the work. This can easily be made at home. 
Some men prefer a vise to a clamp. A common type of clamp 
is illustrated and described under woodwork. (Fig. 86.) 
In addition to the clamp, the repair outfit should consist of 
the following: One dozen sewing needles, different sizes; a 
sharp knife, half dozen awls, ball of shoe thread, two awl 
handles, one revolving punch, one small riveter with rivets. 
The entire repair outfit can be purchased for less than $2. 
Instead of shoe thread and wax, the prepared thread can be 



HARNESS REPAIR 411 

secured. An advantage of the shoe thread and wax is that it 
can be prepared to meet the requirement of the special job. 

414. Splicing Worn Harness Strap. 

Requirements: To make a satisfactory splice that will be 
smooth and not chafe, and if used thru a ring, will not 
catch or bind. It must also be strong enough to resist 
the force applied to it. 

Materials Needed: Suitable leather strip for repair, thread, 
wax. 

Tools Needed: Clamp (such as shown in Fig. 86), one select- 
ed awl, two selected needles, one sharp knife. 

415. Preparing Strap for Sewing. Prepare the worn 
strap for splice by cutting away the worn part. Thin the 
ends down with a sharp knife to a gradual taper for about 3''. 
If the strap is one that can be shortened, it is then ready for 
splicing; otherwise, an insert will have to be prepared and a 
double splice made. Small wire tacks are useful in holding 
the straps together while the stitching is being done. Prepare 
thread for sewing by waxing it. To do this, the thread must 
first be broken with a ragged end. Pull the thread out of the 
center of the ball, hold it on the knee, and roll it to take out 
the twist. When the twist is out, give the string a pull and it 
should break with long ragged ends. Give the end a twist 
around the first finger of the left hand and draw it thru the 
right hand. When about 6' have been drawn out, throw the 
center over a hook in the wall and pull until the ends are 
about even and each about 3' long. Keep the string tight 
with the left hand, and with the right hand rub it on the knee 
as before and break it. Repeat this until the required num- 
ber of strands have been secured, depending on the work to be 



412 



ROPE AND HARNESS WORK 



done. Make the ends of the strands sUghtly uneven in length 
to provide a long tapering point for threading the needle. 
Wax the free ends before twisting. Twist the thread care- 
fully and wax it thoroly. Put the two needles on the thread 

ready for sewing. 

bsNo hene 



Bevelep Edge 



jt I 



2: 



u^ 



Fig. 406. Sewing buckle or strap. 

416. Sewing the Splice. Put the splice in the clamp, 
using extreme care to keep edges perfectly even. Mark off 
holes a definite distance apart. Make hole with the awl, in- 
sert needle and draw the thread half way thru, leaving one 
needle on each side. Make another hole with the awl, insert 
the needle thru and draw the thread thru a few inches; then 
put the other needle thru the same hole from the other side 
and pull both threads up tight, being careful to avoid knots. 
Continue this process along both sides and across the ends of 
the splice. To do a good job, keep the stitches straight and 
of uniform length. To complete the job, draw the ends of the 
thread out between the splice and tie. 

417. Sewing Buckle and Ring on Harness Strap. Suit- 
able buckle, ring and strap for the work intended are the re- 
quired materials for this job. The proper selection of strap 



HARNESS REPAIR 413 

and buckle for the particular job is very essential. The 
buckle should be slightly wider than the strap to insure ease 
in buckling and to reduce the amount of wear on the strap. 
The strap should be prepared for sewing as in preceding exer- 
cise. Fig. 406 illustrates this operation. 

418. Instructions for Sewing Buckle. If strap is 
wider than buckle, trim it down until it is a very little nar- 




Fig. 407. Single harness, breast collar type. 

rower than the buckle. Double end of strap back thru buckle 
at least 2'' for a 1'' strap; cut a slot for the tongue of buckle 
long enough to move the tongue thru 180 degrees. Next 
shave the inner surface of the end of the strap to a beveled 
edge to make a smooth joint when it is sewed. Cut a narrow 
strap of leather to pass around the strap, as shown (Fig. 406), 
to hold the opposite end of the strap when buckled . Put buckle 
in place, fold strap back, and clamp tightly in sewing clamp. 
Proceed to sew, as in preceding problem. Riveting and sew- 
ing can often be employed together on such work. 



414 



ROPE AND HARNESS WORK 



419. Overhauling a Set of Harness (Figs. 407 and 408). 
Preliminary Instructions: Soap and water, oil, harness dress- 
ing and metal polish must be provided for this work. 
Harness in poor repair means a loss of time during the 
busy season. Inspect and repair all harness before the 




t-BRIPLE CROUTvJPIECE , 2.-BROWBAND , 5" E>UN05TAY , 4- BL1ND5 , 

5-Throatlatch , 6-Cheekpiece , 7-No3ebano, 8-Bit, 9-R.ein , 
20-Hamca, II-Neckvoke CmaiinS;, I2~ Breast 5TRAP, I5-Bellyband, 

I4-BACK5TRAF, 15-5ADDI-E, t6-MlP5TRAP5 , 1 7" BREECHING , 18-LaZY- 

5tra5.)9-Hee:lcmain,20- Holding Back Strap , 2,i-Line.s, 22-Collar 
Fig. 408. Double harness. 

spring season work begins. The best time to do this is 
when the weather is bad and outside work cannot be 
done to advantage. To keep the harness in best condi- 
tion, they should be gone over at least twice each year. 
Working Instructions: First take the harness apart so that 
each strap, buckle and ring can be carefully inspected. 
Carefully clean with a little warm soft water. If the 
harness is very dirty, soak for a few minutes in warm 
water; then scrub with a brush, using soap freely; wipe 
and hang up to dry. When dried, apply oil, prepared as 



HARNESS REPAIR 415 

outlined in Sec. 411, or a special harness oil. Make 
several applications and rub the oil into the leather to 
get the best results. To give the harness a good, glossy, 
black finish, it is necessary to apply some good standard 
harness dressing as recommended by the harness-maker. 
Ordinary black shoe polish may be used, but would prob- 
ably be a little more expensive than the material pre- 
pared for the purpose. After application, rub vigor- 
ously with a polishing cloth to get the best results. To 
clean the metal mountings, use some form of metal pol- 
ish or cleansing compound, like Old Dutch Cleanser or 
Bon Ami. Careful polishing is a big factor in giving the 
harness a good appearance. Lastly, put harness back 
together, making all necessary repairs, adding new straps, 
buckles or rings where needed, following instructions out- 
lined in Sees. 415-418. 

420. Adjusting Harness to Horse. Every one who 
handles a team should realize the importance of a well-fitted 
harness. A poorly-fitted harness not only hinders the horse 
in working, but is liable to make a balker out of a good 
worker, and, in addition, is liable to damage the horse by 
causing a sore mouth, shoulders or back. Well-fitted harness 
insures more work done during the busy season. 

421. The Bridle. The fitting of the bridle will depend 
on the individual animal. Adjust the check pieces so that 
the bit will not hang too low in the mouth or so high that it 
will raise the corners of the mouth, thereby causing soreness. 
Each part of the bridle should fit snugly, but not so tight as to 
cause pinching. The blinds should fit snugly up to the head. 
Do not adjust the throat latch too tight. 



416 ROPE AND HARNESS WORK 

422. The Collar. Pay especial attention to the collar, as 
it must bear the load . Test the fittings of the collar by press- 
ing it back against the shoulder when the horse is holding its 
head in working position. The collar should have an even con- 
tact against all parts of the shoulder and have ample space at 
the wind pipe for the place of one's hand. Collars often need 
to be readjusted after the animal has been worked a while in 
the spring, due to its losing flesh. Adjust breast collar to a 
height where it will neither hinder movement nor interfere 
with breathing. 

423. Haines. After the collar is adjusted, adjust the 
hames at the top to fit the collar and then buckle or tie as 
tightly as possible at the bottom. 

424. Other Adjustments. All other parts of the har- 
ness should be adjusted to make them fit snugly, neither too 
tight nor too loose. Adjust the breeching the proper height. 
Fit the saddle to the back at the low place just back of the 
withers. Adjust the crupper strap, back straps, hip straps, 
holding back straps and traces to proper length in the order 
mentioned. 

Note: Avoid accidents in hitching the team to implement 
or vehicle by taking down the lines and adjusting them first. 



INDEX 



A 



Adjusting, binder 316 

corn planter 309 

fertilizer distributors 310 

gas engine 324 

grain drills 307 

grain separator 318 

mower 313 

plows 301,302 

Adjustmenttimeformachinery 298 

Acetylene lighting 343 

Aggregates .116 

Agitation 128 

Agricultural, engineering 262 

production 264 

Air-pressure water system . . . .351 

Aligned.- 157 

Artificial cement 113 

Aspdin, Joseph 113 

Asphalt 151 

Attachment, binder 317 

Attraction Ill 

Automobile, engine 324 

Axle 166 

B 

Babbitting 321 

solid bearing 322 

split bearing 323 

Back saw, use of 40 

Bags, cement 142 

Bank-run gravel 122, 143 

Barnyard pavement 149 

Batch mixer 126 

Beam 300,301 

Bearing, babbitting 321 

scraping 323 

Beater 319 

Belt, clamping and gluing. 330 

Belt-driven machinery 317 

Belts, kinds 329 

Bevel square, setting 44 

Binder 280,289,263,316 

canvases 316 

reel 317 

repair and adjustment 316 



Page Page 

Blacksmith's fire, the 197 

Blacksmith's tools 192-195 

Blaugas 293,345 

Board feet, calculation for . . . . 59 

Box joint 68 

Brace 156,157 

Brakes 295 

Bumpers, disc harrow 303 



Calibration, corn planter 309 

grain drill 307 

Carbon, cleaning cylinder 326 

Care of machinery 267-271 

Carriagestep 153 

Cellar, fruit storage 179, 180 

potato 179,180 

Cement, artificial 113 

natural 112 

Portland 113 

properties 115 

requirements 115 

Roman 112 

Channeliron 176 

Chemical stains 100 

Chick wire 285,308 

Chisels 274 

use of woodworking 66 

Cistern, contamination 347 

filter 347 

Clay, test for 118,143 

Cleaning form 134 

Clevis 301 

Compression 135 

Coal-tar, creosote oil 100 

Concaves 319 

Concrete Ill 

definition of 115 

plain 115 

requirements of 120 

strength of 115 

Consistency 127 

Construction Ill 

Continuous mixer. 127 

Conveying 129 

Corn binder 287 



417 



418 



INDEX 



Page 

Corn, harvesting for silage. . .287 

Corn planter 307 

Corn planting 284 

Corn sheller 317 

Coulter. . 301,302 

Creosote oil, treatment of wood, 

brush method 101 

open-tank method 102 

Curb 172 

Curing 134, 146 

Cutter bar, mower 313 

Cutter, pipe 358 

Cutting pipe 363 

Cutting silage 287 

Cylinder 326 

D 

Deere, John 263 

Definitions, concrete Ill 

Depreciation of machines 270 

Derricks 130 

Die-stock and dies, pipe 358 

Dipping vat 182 

Discarded machines 271 

Disc harrow 305 

Disposal of sewage 353 

Drain 165,176 

diggingto 365 

establishing 364 

grade line for 364 

outlet 364 

Drainage, additional jobs 378 

fittings 361 

Drain tile, at foundation of 

house 377 

installing for kitchen sink. . .363 

Drilling corn 309 

Drilling grain 286 

Drills 274 

Door step 152, 153 

Dry mixture 127, 144 

E 

Earth forms 131 

Economical Ill 

Edger 138,152 

Effects of machines 263-265 

Electric lighting plant. . .293,342 

belt-driven 342 

unit 342 

windmill 342 



Page 

Elevating 130 

Engine, gas 324,325 

questions 327, 328 

Equipment 262,264 

home 292 

Errors 121 

Expansion 136 

Expansion joint 151 

F 

Feeding floor 149 

Feed mills 317 

Fertilizer drill 279,310,313 

Fittings, pipe 360 

Files 274 

Fire,blacksmith's,maintaining.l99 

Fireproof Ill 

Float 138 

Floor, feeding 172 

Fluted cyhnder 305 

Fluxes for soldering 235 

Forms 131,132 

Foundation, machine 168 

floor 172 

walls 155,156 

Frost line 157 

Fruit storage 179, 180 

Furnace 294 

G 

Garage floor 149 

Gas engines 281 

overhauling 324,325 

questions on 327,328 

Gas lighting 293 

Gauge, wheel — plow 300 

Glass, cutting 106 

setting in frame 107 

Graded 120 

Grading corn 284 

Grain binder 316 

Grain drin 286 

repairing 305-307 

Grain separator 318 

repairing 318 

Gravel 116 

Gravity water system. . . .348-350 

installation of 348 

Groover 138,152 

Grinding valves 326 



INDEX 



419 



Page 

H 

Hack-saw 274 

Halter, making rope 402 

Hammers 274 

Harness 409-416 

adjustment 415, 416 

bridle 415 

collar 416 

hames 416 

leather 410 

oil 410 

overhauling 414 

repair 409, 414 

room 409 

Harness strap, sewing buckle 

412,413 

splicing 411 

Harness work, equipment for. . 410 

Harrows 303 

Harvesting grain 289 

Harvesting machinery 313 

Hay, harvesting 290 

Haying machinery 279 

Heater, stock water 375 

Heating house 345 

hot water 346 

pipeless furnace 345 

steam 346 

warm air 345 

Heel, plow 303 

Historic 112 

Hoisting 130 

Hog wallow 170 

Hot-bed 155 

Hot-water tank 374 

Housing machinery 270 

Hydraulic current 112 

Hydraulic ram 351 

Hydro-pneumatic water system 

351,352 

automatic control of 351 

operation of 351 

I 

Impulse starter 296 

Iron and steel, manufacture of . 185 

Iron, bending same 201 

drawing same 203 

pig and wrought 186 

upsetting 205 



Page 

Jointer 300,301 

Joint, expansion 151 

Joints in belt lacing 333 

K 

Kitchen sink 366, 368 

height 367 

installing 366 

location 367 

L 

Lacing a belt 331 

Lamp, kerosene flat wick 341 

kerosene tubular 342 

portable gasoline 344 

Landside, plow 300 

Lap joint in soldering 240 

Lighting, acetylene 343 

Blau gas 345 

cheapest 341 

farm. 341 

gasoline 344 

electric 342 

modern 342 

necessity for good 341 

Light plant 293 

Limestone 118, 143 

Limesower 313 

Logging 15 

Lubrication 297 

M 

Machine, mixing 126 

requirements of 268 

Machinery, care of 267 

farm 262 

inspection 298 

Manhole cover 171 

Manure spreader 279,310,311 

Marker, corn planter 285 

Marking gage, gaging for width 

use of 37 

Marlin spike 383 

Materials, for machine repair. . 275 

Materials, rope 

cotton 379 

manilla fiber 379 

sisal fiber 379 

McCormick 263 

Measurement 139, 140 



420 



INDEX 



Page 
Measuring and calculating lum- 
ber 19 

Mechanical power 266 

Milling 16 

Miter box, use of 62 

Mixer, continuous 127 

batch 126 

Mixing 123 

Mixtures 121 

Modeling tools, woodworking . .74 

Moldboard 300 

Molded concrete 144 

Molds 131 

Mortar 115 

Mortise joint 72 

laying out 72 

Motors, farm 262 

repair and adjustment of . . .324 

Mower 291, 313, 314, 315 

repair and adjustment of . . .313 
Mowing hay 291 

N 

Nailing, use of hammer 45 

Natural current 112 

Neutral axis 135 

O 

Oiling form 134,146 

Oil stains 98,100 

One-course walk 150 

Operating household equipment 

292 

Operation of machinery 282 

Operation of tractor 296 

Overflow 165 

P 

Paint 104 

Painting machinery 270 

Parker, Joseph 112 

Patching in soldering 242 

Pebbles, soft 116 

Permanent Ill 

Pig-iron 186 

Pipe, cast-iron and lead 372 

Pipe, cutter 358 

cutting 363 

fittings 360 

reamer 359 

soil 371 

threading 362 

vise 357 



Page 

Pipe, wrenches 359 

Pit, manure 170 

scale 173 

Pitman 315 

Pitts 263 

Placing concrete 128 

Plane-iron, grinding and whet- 
ting 48,49 

Planes and planing 46 

Planing up a board, rule for . 51-53 

Planting corn 284 

Planting machinery 304 

Plasticity 131 

Plates, corn planter 285 

Platform 153,154 

Pliers 274 

Plow, repair and adjustment 

300, 302 

sulky 301 

walking 299 

Plumber, as a specialist 355 

Plumbing, country house 

installingin 368-372 

requirements of 368 

Plumbing 355 

essentials 356 

materials and fixtures . . 356, 357 

tools 357,359 

Portland cement 113 

Post mold 132 

Posts -. 144,158,159 

Potato storage 179, 180 

Power 266,281 

Power-driven machinery 280 

Power machinery 209 

Preparation of seedbed 284 

Preserving wood 97 

Privy vault 174, 175 

Properties of cement 115 

Proportions 120, 121 

Protection . . . . 152 

Pumping, maximum depth suc- 
tion pump 366 

Putty and puttying 108 

Q 

Quaky mixture 127, 148 

Qualities of cement Ill 

Quantities 122, 143 

R 

Ratproof Ill 



INDEX 



421 



Page 

Reamer, pipe 359 

Reinforcing 135, 137, 158, 160 

Removing forms 133, 146 

Repairs, checking up 298 

Requirements of cement 115 

Reservoir, water storage. . 348, 350 

Retaining wall 142 

Riddle 139 

Rings, piston 326 

replacing 326 

Rip-saw, use of 41, 42 

Risers 153,154 

Roller, lawn 166 

Roman cement 112 

Rope, care and treatment 381 

construction 379 

how made 380 

materials 379 

raveled treatment 383 

terms 380-381 

use 379 

whipping 383 

Rope end knots 

blood knot 386 

crown knot 384 

crown splice 385 

figures 386 

Matthew Walker 385 

manrope 385 

overhand 386 

stevedore 387 

wall and crown 385 

wall knot 384 

Rope hitches: 

blackwall hitch 396 

clove hitch 395 

half hitch 394 

rolling hitch 395 

scaffold hitch 396 

sheepshank 397 

timber hitch 395 

Rope knots, requirements cf good 

382 

theory of 382 

Rope splices: 

end or crown 369,397 

eye 398 

long 399-401 

loop 398 

short 399 

side 398 



Page 

Rope tying: 

binder knot 388 

bowline 390 

Carrick's bend 390 

double bowline 391 

farmer's loop 394 

granny knot 389 

lariat 393 

manger knot 392 

practice 388 

slipknot 392 

square knot 388 

surgeon's knot 389 

weaver's knot 389 

Rope work 378 

adjustable halter 404 

casting rope 406,407 

making halter 402 

materials needed 383 

non-adjustable halter 404 

tools needed 383 

trip rope 405 

S 

Sandpapering wood 77 

Sanitary Ill 

Sanitation 347 

Saws, woodworking, 

classification and use of. . . 33-36 

Scarfing for weld 214 

Scrap iron. 137 

Scrapers, disc harrow 304 

Scraping bearing 323 

Scraping wood 77 

Screening, making screens . . . .109 

Screwdriver 274 

Seasoning wood . .- 18 

Seed-bed preparation 284 

Seeding machinery 278 

Separator 317,318 

Septictank 353-355 

Sewage, disposal 353 

purification of 355 

Shares, plow 300 

Sheet-metal, use of on form . . 234 

Shellac 103 

Shock, grain 289 

Shovel 138 

Side draft 284 

Sidewalk 144,146 

Silage 287 

Silage cutter 280,287 



422 



INDEX 



Page 

Silo 287 

Sink, kitchen 366 

Smeaton, John 112 

Snubbers, disc harrow 304 

Soft pebbles 116 

Soil pipe, making joints 371 

Solder classes 234 

Soldering, equipment 

process ' 236 

Special belt lacing 338 340 

Splices, rope 382 

theory of 382 

Spokeshave, useof 76 

Spreader, manure 

straw 279 

Squaring with try-square 36 

Steel Ill 

open-hearth and Bessemer 
process 187 

tempering 188 

Step 152,153 

Stock, tap and dies 275 

Storage battery 293,342 

Strawspreader 279,312 

repair and adjustment of . . .312 

Studying farm machinery 276 

Sub-base 154,163 

Suction, plow 300 

disc ; 304 

Sulky plow 301 

T 

Tamper 138 

Tamping 128,146 

Tank, circular 143,161,165 

milk cooling 174 

rectangular 144, 178, 179 

Tank installation 

hot water 374,375 

stock tank 373 

Tarpaulin 152 

Tarvia 151 

Tap and dies 275 

Tension 135 

Template 168 

Test for clay 118,143 

Threading pipe 362 

Thresher 263,289 

Threshing machinery . . . .818-321 
Tile 

laying .365 

poorly laid 364 



Page 

Tile, properly laid 364 

sewer 355,366,371 

Tillage, machinery 277,299 

Tools, concrete 137 

for machinery repair 272 

pipe 357-359 

woodworking, their classifica- 
tion 28 

Top, cistern wall 169 

Tractor 294,324 

management 297 

operation 296 

problem 297 

study 281 

Treads 153,154 

Trees, growth 17 

their classification 20 

Trough : 129,167 

Troweling 151, 154 

Trowels 138 

Truck 324 

Turning saw, useof 75 

V 

Valves, grinding 326 

Varnish 103 

Vat 182 

Vault, privy 174, 175 

Vegetable matter 118 

Vise 273 

pipe 357 

Voids 120 

W 

Walking plow 300 

Wall, foundation 155, 156 

Wallow, hog. . 170 

Washing machine 294 

Water, estimated amount used . 353 

Water stains 99 

Water supply 347 

Water system, air-pressure. . . .347 

gravity 292,348-350 

selecting 353 

simplest 347 

Wax for wood-finishing 99 

Weldingiron 197, 215 

Well contamination 347 

Wet mixture 127 

Wheelbarrows 129 

White, canvas 112 



INDEX 423 

Page Page 

Wire lacing of belts 337 Wood finishes 97 

Wire reinforcement in tin work. 249 Wood rasp 77 

Wiring for lights 343 Wrenches 273 

Wood filler 103 Wrought iron 186 



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